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✅An Introduction to Indian Art
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✅An Introduction to Indian Art

Chapter 1 - Prehistoric Rock Paintings
Introduction
Prehistoric Times & Art
  1. Definition
      • Prehistory: Time with no paper, language, written word, books, or documents.
  1. Discovering Prehistory
      • Scholars discovered prehistoric habitats through excavations.
      • Findings include tools, pottery, bones, and cave drawings.
      • Knowledge of prehistoric life pieced together from these findings.
  1. Purpose of Prehistoric Art
      • Reasons for Drawing
        • Make shelters beautiful.
        • The visual record of daily life (akin to diaries).
      • Subjects of drawings include human figures, activities, geometric designs, and animals.
  1. Art Evolution & Distribution
      • Unclear if art existed during Lower Palaeolithic times.
      • Art flourished during Upper Palaeolithic times.
      • The earliest paintings found in India were from Upper Palaeolithic times.
  1. Key Discoveries & Archaeologists
      • First rock painting discovery in India: 1867-68 by Archibold Carlleyle.
      • Other notable archaeologists: Cockburn, Anderson, Mitra, and Ghosh.
  1. Indian Rock Paintings
      • Found across states: Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Bihar, and Uttarakhand.
      • Notable site: Lakhudiyar (meaning "one lakh caves").
        • Categorized paintings: humans, animals, geometric patterns.
        • Superimposition of paintings seen.
  1. Specific Sites & Paintings
      • Kashmir: Two slabs with engravings.
      • Karnataka & Andhra Pradesh: Kupgallu, Piklihal, and Tekkalkota are notable sites. Subjects include animals and stylized humans.
      • Vindhya ranges Richest paintings found here.
        • Bhimbetka: Discovered in 1957-58 by V.S. Wakankar.
          • Over 800 rock shelters with 500 having paintings.
          • Themes: hunting, dancing, music, and daily life.
          • They are categorized into seven historical periods (Period I: Upper Palaeolithic to Period III: Chalcolithic mentioned).
Map 1 - Prehistoric Sites
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Map 2 - Indus Valley Sites
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Upper Palaeolithic Period
Upper Palaeolithic Period & Art
  1. Characteristics of Paintings
      • Style: Linear representations.
      • Colors:
        • Green: Mainly dancers.
        • Dark Red: Mainly hunters.
      • Animals Represented:
        • Bison, elephants, tigers, rhinos, and boars.
  1. Human Figures
      • Depicted as stick-like forms.
  1. Art Techniques
      • The majority is filled with geometric patterns.
      • A few are wash paintings.
Mesolithic Period
Mesolithic Period & Art at Bhimbetka
  1. Duration and Characteristics
      • Period II: Largest number of paintings.
      • Themes: Multiple, but paintings are smaller in size.
  1. Themes and Subjects
      • Hunting: The main theme, depicts groups armed with spears, arrows, bows, and traps.
      • Animals: Elephant, bison, tiger, boar, deer, antelope, and more.
      • Humans: Men with head-dresses and masks, women (both clothed and nude), children in various activities.
      • Daily Life: Community dances, gathering fruit, grinding food, and family scenes.
      • Artistic Impressions: Paintings show fear, love, and tenderness for animals.
  1. Techniques and Colors
      • Naturalistic Style: For animals.
      • Stylistic Manner: For humans.
      • Colors: White, yellow, orange, red ochre, purple, brown, green, and black.
        • Made from grinding rocks and minerals.
        • White (limestone), Red (haematite), Green (chalcedony).
  1. Tools and Materials
      • Brushes: Plant fiber.
      • Binding Agents: Animal fat, gum, or resin.
      • Remarkable Durability: Due to the oxide on the rock surface.
  1. Painting Locations
      • Walls and ceilings of rock shelters.
      • Both living spaces and potentially religious areas.
      • Some paintings are very high in visibility.
  1. Pictorial Quality
      • Representations of their environment.
      • Showcases men as adventurous and animals as youthful.
      • Mastery of drawing forms.
  1. Layers of Paintings
      • Multiple paintings on top of each other.
      • Reasons: Dissatisfaction, sacred places, or usage by different generations.
  1. Significance
      • Provides insights into early human lifestyle, habits, activities, and thoughts.
      • Important for understanding the evolution of human civilization.
Additional Concepts
Prehistoric Period & Art Overview
  1. Introduction
      • Definition: Early development phase of humans.
      • Other Names: Old Stone Age or the Palaeolithic Age.
  1. Artistic Themes & Representations
      • Lakhudiyar, Uttarakhand:
        • Hand-linked dancing figures.
        • Wavy lines.
      • Bhimbetka, Madhya Pradesh:
        • Cave entrance art.
        • Unique artwork of a singular animal.
        • Art depicting a man being hunted by a beast.
  1. Cultural Rituals & Art
      • Ritualistic Art: Art was part of significant life rituals.
        • Birth, death, coming of age, and marriage.
      • Hunting Rites:
        • Dance with masks.
        • Helps in the hunting of elusive animals.
  1. Artistic Depictions
      • Hunting Scenes:
        • Predominant in Mesolithic paintings.
        • Mastery in form depiction, e.g., scene of bison hunting with injured men scattered.
      • Dancing Scenes:
        • The recurring theme in art.
        • Hand-linked figures in dancing mode.
        • Similarities observed with the Lakhudiyar rock painting in Uttarakhand.
Chapter 2 - Arts of the Indus Valley
Introduction
Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC) & Arts Overview
  1. Introduction
      • Timeline: Emerged during the second half of the third millennium BCE.
      • Art Forms: Sculptures, seals, pottery, jewellery, terracotta figures.
  1. Artistic Excellence
      • Sensibilities: Fine artistic touch with a vivid imagination.
      • Representation:
        • Human and animal figures: Realistic.
        • Terracotta art: Carefully modeled animal figures.
        • Unique anatomical details.
  1. Major IVC Sites
      • Geography: Along the Indus River.
      • Key Cities:
        • Harappa (North): Civic planning, grid-like city structure.
        • Mohenjodaro (South): Examples of civic planning with public amenities.
      • City Features: Houses, markets, storage, offices, and public baths in a grid pattern.
      • Advanced Infrastructure: Developed drainage system.
  1. IVC Sites in India
      • Lothal & Dholavira: Gujarat.
      • Rakhigarhi: Haryana.
      • Ropar: Punjab.
      • Kalibangan: Rajasthan.
Stone Statues
Harappan Stone Statues Overview
  1. General Characteristics
      • Material: Stone, but also bronze and terracotta.
      • Quantity: Not abundant but of high quality.
      • Craftsmanship: Demonstrates skill in 3D representation.
  1. Noteworthy Stone Statuaries
      • Sites of Discovery: Harappa and Mohenjodaro.
      • Key Figures:
          1. Red Sandstone Torso: Not elaborated upon in detail.
          1. Bearded Man Bust (Soapstone):
              • Interpretation: Possibly a priest.
              • Drapery: Shawl (right arm under, left shoulder over) with trefoil patterns.
              • Facial Features:
                • Eyes: Slightly elongated, half-closed (meditative).
                • Nose: Medium-sized, well-formed.
                • Mouth: Average size with the moustache.
                • Hair: Middle-parted, with a woven fillet around the head.
              • Additional Details: Short beard, whiskers, double-shell-like ears with a central hole.
              • Adornments: Armlet (right hand), hinted necklace (due to neck holes).
Bronze Casting
Harappan Bronze Casting Overview
  1. Bronze Casting Technique
      • Method: 'Lost wax' technique.
          1. Creation of Wax Model: Model of the desired figure crafted in wax.
          1. Clay Coating: Wax model covered with clay and dried.
          1. Draining Molten Wax: Wax is heated and drained via a tiny hole in the clay.
          1. Pouring Molten Metal: Hollow mold filled with molten metal.
          1. Final Object Retrieval: Once cooled, the clay mold was removed to reveal a metal figure.
  1. Types of Figures Produced
      • Human Figures: The best example – is ‘Dancing Girl’.
      • Animal Figures: Notable ones include the buffalo (uplifted head, back, sweeping horns) and the goat.
  1. Distribution & Importance in Different Regions
      • Indus Valley: Widely practiced bronze casting.
        • Lothal: Copper dog and bird.
        • Kalibangan: Bronze bull figure.
        • Harappa & Mohenjodaro: Noted for human figures in copper and bronze.
      • Beyond Harappan Era:
        • Daimabad (Maharashtra): Late Harappan and Chalcolithic sites yielded human and animal metal-cast sculptures, highlighting the continuation of this artistic tradition.
Terracotta
Indus Valley Terracotta Art
  1. General Overview
      • Material: Terracotta.
      • Comparison with Other Materials:
        • Stone & Bronze: Terracotta figures in the Indus Valley are more crude in comparison.
        • Regional Variations: Figures are more realistic in Gujarat sites and Kalibangan.
  1. Key Terracotta Figures
      • Mother Goddess: Most significant among the Indus terracotta figures.
      • Bearded Males:
        • Description: Coiled hair, rigid upright posture, legs slightly apart, arms parallel to the body sides.
        • Significance: Repetition suggests possible representation of a deity.
      • Horned Deity: Found as a terracotta mask.
  1. Other Terracotta Artifacts
      • Toys & Instruments: Toy carts with wheels, whistles, and rattles.
      • Animal Figures: Various birds and animals are depicted in terracotta.
      • Games & Tools: Gamesmen and discs.
Seals
Indus Valley Seals
  1. Materials & Composition
      • Primary Material: Steatite.
      • Other Materials: Agate, chert, copper, faience, terracotta, and ivory.
      • Standard Size: Square plaque 2×2 square inches.
      • Design: Figures and animals carved in intaglio.
  1. Animal Depictions
      • Variety: Unicorn bull, rhinoceros, tiger, elephant, bison, goat, buffalo, and more.
      • Realism: Notable realistic portrayal of these animals in various moods.
  1. Purpose & Use
      • Commercial Use: Main purpose of seal production.
      • Amulet Use: Seals as personal identity markers.
      • Inscriptions: Each seal engraved with a unique pictographic script, yet to be deciphered.
  1. Special Seals
      • Pashupati Seal:
        • Description: Central human figure surrounded by animals, including elephant, tiger, rhinoceros, buffalo, and antelopes.
        • Interpretation: Identified by some as Pashupati, and by others as a female deity.
        • Date & Location: Found between 2500 and 1900 BCE in sites like Mohenjodaro.
  1. Copper Tablets
      • Shape: Square or rectangular.
      • Design: Animal or human figure on one side, inscription on the other, or inscriptions on both sides.
      • Purpose: Likely served as amulets.
      • Unique Factor: Inscriptions on these copper tablets are associated with the animals portrayed, unlike the unique inscriptions on each seal.
Pottery
Indus Valley Pottery
  1. Overview
      • Volume: Large quantity found across sites.
      • Craftsmanship: Mainly fine wheel-made wares; limited hand-made items.
      • Design Evolution: Pottery reveals evolution of design motifs, shapes, and styles.
  1. Types of Pottery
      • Plain Pottery
        • Composition: Predominantly red clay, sometimes with red or grey slip.
        • Design: Includes knobbed ware (ornamented with rows of knobs).
      • Black Painted Ware
        • Base: Coated with fine red slip.
        • Design: Geometric and animal patterns painted in glossy black.
      • Polychrome Pottery
        • Rarity: Quite rare.
        • Design: Small vases with geometric designs in red, black, green, occasionally white, and yellow.
      • Incised Ware
        • Rarity: Uncommon.
        • Design: Incised patterns, typically found on the basis of pans (inside) or offering stand dishes.
      • Perforated Pottery
        • Features: Large hole at the bottom; small holes throughout the wall.
        • Use: Likely for straining drinks.
  1. Utility & Craftsmanship
      • Shapes & Sizes: Wide variety to meet daily household needs.
      • Design Philosophy: Predominantly graceful curves; straight and angular forms are rare.
      • Miniature Vessels: Remarkably crafted items, usually less than half an inch in height.
Beads and Ornaments
Harappan Ornaments & Lifestyle
  1. Ornaments Overview
      • Used by both men and women.
      • Made from diverse materials, from gemstones to baked clay.
  1. Common Ornaments
      • Worn by both sexes: Necklaces, fillets, armlets, finger-rings.
      • Specific to women: Girdles, earrings, anklets.
  1. Prominent Finds
      • Mohenjodaro & Lothal: Gold & semi-precious stone necklaces, copper bracelets, gold earrings, faience pendants, steatite beads.
      • Farmana, Haryana: Cemetery with bodies adorned with ornaments.
  1. Bead Industry
      • Factories: Chanhudaro & Lothal.
      • Materials: Carnelian, amethyst, jasper, metals (copper, bronze, gold), shell, faience, terracotta.
      • Shapes: Disc-shaped, cylindrical, spherical, segmented.
      • Craftsmanship: Combination beads, incised designs, painted motifs, etchings.
  1. Animal Models
      • Naturalistic models, especially monkeys & squirrels.
      • Used as pin-heads and beads.
  1. Textiles & Fashion
      • Spinning: Common activity, evidenced by spindles & whorls.
      • Attire: Separate pieces similar to dhoti & shawl. The shawl is styled uniquely, covering the left shoulder.
      • Fashion: Varied hairstyles; beard-wearing popular. Usage of cinnabar (cosmetic), lipstick, and eyeliner.
  1. Construction & Artistry
      • Dholavira: Stone structural remains show the use of stone in construction.
      • Craftsmanship: Expertise in metal casting, stone carving, pottery painting, and terracotta image creation.
Additional Concepts
Indus Valley Bronze Casting & Artefacts
  1. Bronze Casting Tradition
      • Techniques still practiced in many parts of the country.
      • A continuous tradition from ancient times to the present.
  1. Dancing Girl
      • Origin: Found in Mohenjodaro.
      • Material: Copper.
      • Description:
        • Height: Approximately four inches.
        • Features: Long hair in a bun, bangles on left arm, bracelet & amulet/bangle on right arm, cowry shell necklace.
        • Pose: Traditional Indian dance gesture; right hand on hip, left hand in a gesture.
        • Facial attributes: Large eyes, flat nose.
  1. Bull
      • Origin: Mohenjodaro.
      • Material: Bronze.
      • Description:
        • Expresses the massiveness and fury of a charging bull.
        • Pose: Standing, head turned to the right, cord around the neck.
  1. Male Torso
      • Material: Red sandstone.
      • Description:
        • Socket holes in neck & shoulders for attachment of head and arms.
        • Frontal posture, well-baked shoulders, slightly prominent abdomen.
  1. Painted Earthen Jar
      • Origin: Mohenjodaro.
      • Material: Clay.
      • Crafting Technique: Made on a potter's wheel; shaped by potter's fingers; baked and painted in black.
      • Decoration: High polish; motifs include vegetals & geometric forms leaning towards abstraction.
  1. Mother Goddess
      • Appearance: Crude standing female figures.
      • Attire & Features:
        • Necklaces over prominent breasts.
        • Loin cloth, girdle.
        • Distinctive fan-shaped head-dress with a cup-like projection on each side.
        • Pellet eyes, beaked nose, slit indicating mouth.
          • Map
          notion image
Chapter 3 - Arts of the Mauryan Period
Introduction
Religious & Social Movements in the 6th Century BCE
  1. Background
      • Time Frame: Sixth century BCE.
      • Location: Gangetic valley.
  1. The emergence of New Movements
      • Part of the shraman tradition.
        • Buddhism:
          • Opposed the varna and jati systems.
          • Patronized by Ashoka in the third century BCE.
          • Became a dominant social and religious movement.
        • Jainism:
          • Opposed the varna and jati systems.
          • Became popular alongside Buddhism.
  1. Political Landscape
      • Magadha Kingdom:
        • Emerged and consolidated control over other regions.
      • Mauryan Dynasty:
        • Established by the fourth century BCE.
        • By the third century BCE, controlled a large part of India.
        • The most powerful king: was Ashoka.
  1. Religious Practices & Diversity
      • Varied dimensions; not limited to a single mode of worship.
      • Yaksha Worship:
        • Prevalent before and after Buddhism's rise.
        • Assimilated into Buddhism and Jainism.
      • Worship of Mother-Goddesses is also prevalent.
Pillars, Sculptures and Rock-cut Architecture
  1. Monastic Establishments
      • Stupas and Viharas:
        • Construction became a key part of the Buddhist tradition.
  1. Mauryan Artistic Expressions
      • Stone Pillars:
        • Carved at various places.
        • Erection of pillars had ancient traditions (e.g., the Achamenian empire).
        • Difference: Mauryan pillars were rock-cut, showcasing the carver's skills, whereas Achamenian pillars were constructed by masons.
        • Erected by Ashoka in Northern India with inscriptions.
        • Top of pillars: Capital figures like bull, lion, elephant.
        • Examples found in Basarah-Bakhira, Lauriya-Nandangarh, Rampurva (Bihar), Sankisa, and Sarnath (Uttar Pradesh).
      • Sarnath Lion Capital:
        • A fine example of Mauryan sculptural tradition.
        • National emblem of India.
        • Symbolizes Dhammachakrapravartana (Buddha's first sermon).
  1. Popular Yaksha Worship
      • Monumental Images:
        • Found across India.
        • Signifies the importance of Yaksha worship.
        • Assimilation into Buddhist and Jain religious monuments.
        • Large statues are found in Patna, Vidisha, and Mathura.
      • Key Characteristics:
        • Polished surfaces.
        • Pronounced physiognomic details.
        • Example: Yakshi figure from Didarganj, Patna.
  1. Rock-cut Achievements
      • Barabar Hills Cave (Lomas Rishi Cave):
        • Near Gaya, Bihar.
        • Elephant frieze on the chaitya arch.
        • Donated by Ashoka for the Ajivika sect.
        • Later Buddhist caves were excavated in eastern and western India.
  1. Stupas and Viharas
      • Elaborately built, showcasing the popularity of Buddhism.
      • Constructed over Buddha's relics.
      • Examples are found in Rajagraha, Vaishali, Kapilavastu, Kushinagar, and more.
      • Gradual architectural evolution:
        • Enclosing with railings, sculptural decorations, gateways, etc.
  1. Depiction of Buddha in Art
      • Early Phase:
        • Symbolic depictions (footprints, lotus throne, chakra).
      • Narrative Inclusions:
        • Life events and Jataka stories on railings and torans.
        • Synoptic, continuous, and episodic narratives in the pictorial tradition.
        • Frequently depicted events: birth, enlightenment, dhamma chakra pravartana, mahaparinibbana.
        • Common Jataka stories: Chhadanta, Vidurpundita, Ruru, Sibi, Vessantara, Shama.
Additional Concepts
1. LION CAPITAL, SARNATH
  • Origin & Location
    • Discovered at Sarnath, near Varanasi.
    • Currently housed in the archaeological museum at Sarnath.
  • Significance
    • Commemorates the first sermon or the Dhammachakrapravartana by Buddha.
    • Built by Ashoka.
    • Adopted as the National Emblem of Independent India.
  • Components
    • i. Shaft (broken currently)
    • ii. Lotus bell base
    • iii. Drum with four animals proceeding clockwise
    • iv. Four majestic lions seated back to back
    • v. Dharamchakra (large wheel, currently broken and kept separately).
  • Notable Features
    • Lions: Powerful facial muscles, sharp mane lines, heavily polished surface.
    • Abacus: Contains depiction of a chakra with twenty-four spokes and animals like bull, horse, elephant, and lion between each chakra.
    • Movement depicted in limited space.
    • Lotus base with intricately carved petals.
    • Can be viewed from all sides; no fixed viewpoint.
2. DIDARGUNJ YAKSHINI
  • Origin & Location
    • Discovered in Didargunj near Patna.
    • Currently housed in the Patna Museum.
  • Material & Size
    • Made of sandstone with a polished surface.
    • Life-size standing statue.
  • Notable Features
    • Holds a chauri (flywhisk) in the right hand. Left hand is broken.
    • Sophistication in form treatment.
    • Face: Round, fleshy cheeks; sharp eyes, nose, and lips.
    • Body: Round muscularity, heavy breasts, and a bulging belly.
    • Adornments: Necklace beads in full round, bell-ornaments on feet.
    • Garment: Detailed drapery clinging to the legs with a transparent effect.
    • Back: Hair tied in a knot, bareback, drapery covering both legs.
    • Flywhisk: Shown with incised lines on the back of the image.
Chapter 4 - Post-Mauryan trends in Indian art and architecture
Introduction
1. Post-Mauryan Rulers
  • Northern & Central India
    • Shungas, Kanvas, Kushanas, Guptas
  • Southern & Western India
    • Satvahanas, Ikshavakus, Abhiras, Vakataks
2. Rise of Brahmanical Sects (2nd Century BCE)
  • Main Sects
    • Vaishnavas
    • Shaivas
3. Notable Sculptural Sites (2nd Century BCE)
  • Madhya Pradesh
    • Vidisha
    • Bharhut
  • Bihar
    • Bodhgaya
  • Andhra Pradesh
    • Jaggayyapeta
  • Uttar Pradesh
    • Mathura
  • Odisha
    • Khandagiri-Udaigiri
  • Maharashtra
    • Bhaja (near Pune)
    • Pavani (near Nagpur)
Bharhut
1. Characteristics of Bharhut Sculptures
  • General Traits
    • Tall like Yaksha and Yakhshini of Mauryan period.
    • Low relief volume with linearity.
    • Sticks closely to the picture plane.
  • Narrative Depictions
    • Utilizes tilted perspective for 3D illusion.
    • Main events are emphasized for clarity.
    • Over time, more characters are added to the narratives.
  • Usage of Space
    • Sculptors maximize available space.
    • Early sculptures: hands folded flat against the chest.
    • Later sculptures: natural projection of hands.
2. Evolution and Techniques
  • Initial Methods
    • Priority on dressing stone slab surface.
    • Limited projections due to shallow carving.
  • Progressive Techniques
    • Deep carvings and pronounced volume.
    • Naturalistic representation of human and animal forms.
  • Examples
    • Bharhut, Bodhgaya, Sanchi Stupa-2, Jagayyapetta.
3. Narrative Themes in Bharhut Reliefs
  • Effective Communication
    • Artisans used pictorial language to convey stories.
  • Illustrative Narratives
    • Queen Mayadevi’s dream: Reclining queen with descending elephant symbolizing Siddhartha Gautam's conception.
    • Ruru Jataka: Boddhisattva deer rescues man; man later betrays deer's identity.
  • Stupa Decorations
    • Jataka stories became integral in stupa decor.
    • Regional stylistic variations in stupa constructions.
4. Distinctive Features
  • Consistent feature in 1st-2nd century BCE male images: knotted headgear.
5. Present Location
  • Some Bharhut sculptures are housed in the Indian Museum, Kolkata.
Sanchi
1. Sanchi Stupa-1: Overview
  • Location & Significance
    • Next phase of development after Bharhut.
    • Positioned alongside other significant sites: Mathura, Vengi (Andhra Pradesh).
  • Key Features
    • Upper and lower pradakshinapatha (circumambulatory path).
    • Four intricately decorated toranas (gateways).
2. Evolution in Stylistic Elements
  • Relief and Composition
    • High relief, making full use of space.
    • Reduction in rigidity; figures given more movement.
  • Naturalism & Detailing
    • Postures become more naturalistic.
    • Heads project notably in picture space.
    • Less stiff contours; images portray dynamism.
  • Narrative Development
    • More detailed than Bharhut.
    • Symbols, representing Buddha, continue to be used.
  • Specific Narratives
    • The dream episode remains simplistic: reclining queen with elephant.
    • Detailed historical events: siege of Kushinara, Buddha’s visits to Kapilavastu and Ramgrama Stupa.
3. Comparison with Mathura Sculptures
  • Similar quality in terms of workmanship.
  • Differences lie in depiction of physiognomic details.
Sanchi
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Mathura, Sarnath, and Gandhara Schools
1. Important Centres of Art Production (1st century CE onwards)
  • Gandhara: Present-day Pakistan.
  • Mathura: Northern India.
  • Vengi: Andhra Pradesh.
2. Emergence of Human Form of Buddha
  • Symbolic to human form transition in both Mathura and Gandhara.
  • Gandhara Influence: Mix of Bactria, Parthia, and local Gandhara tradition.
  • Mathura Influence: Strong local sculptural tradition influencing northern India (e.g., Sanghol in Punjab).
3. Distinct Features of Sculptures
  • Gandhara Buddha: Hellenistic features.
  • Mathura Buddha: Inspired by earlier Yaksha images.
  • Jain Teerthankar & King Portraits: e.g., headless Kanishka from Mathura.
4. Diversity in Mathura Sculptures
  • Religious Diversity
    • Buddha, Jain Teerthankar images, Vaishnava (Vishnu), and Shaiva (lingas, mukhalingas).
    • Vishnu and Shiva represented by their weapons (ayudhas).
  • Stylistic Progression
    • 2nd century CE: Sensual, rotund, fleshier images.
    • Late 4th century CE: Reduced massiveness and tighter flesh.
    • 5th and 6th centuries CE: Integrated drapery, transparent robes on Buddha.
5. Comparison: Mathura vs. Sarnath & Kosambi
  • Sarnath & Kosambi: New centers in northern India.
  • Sarnath Buddha: Transparent drapery, minimalistic halo ornamentation.
  • Mathura Buddha: Detailed drapery folds, ornate halo.
6. Museums for Early Sculptures
  • Mathura, Sarnath, Varanasi, New Delhi, Chennai, Amaravati, etc.
7. Stupa Sites & Subsequent Evolution
  • Devnimori: Notable stupa site in Gujarat.
  • Trend: Little variations, slender images, and transparent drapery as dominant aesthetic.
Buddhist Monuments of South India
1. Stupa Sites in Andhra Pradesh
  • Vengi: Houses several stupa sites: Jagayyapetta, Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Nagarjunkonda, Goli.
  • Amaravati:
    • Features a mahachaitya.
    • Sculptures are preserved in multiple museums including the Chennai Museum, Amaravati Site Museum, the National Museum, and the British Museum.
    • Like Sanchi, has pradakshinapatha within a vedika.
    • Unique feature: domical stupa covered with relief sculptural slabs.
    • Historical Timeline: The early phase (3rd century BCE) lacked Buddha images; the later phase (2nd & 3rd centuries CE) incorporated Buddha images.
2. Amaravati Sculptural Characteristics
  • Intense emotions, slender figures, dynamic movement.
  • Three bents in bodies (tribhanga).
  • Advanced linearity, three-dimensional relief sculptures.
  • Notable depiction: Birth of Buddha (e.g., dream of Queen Mayadevi).
3. Nagarjunkonda and Goli Sculptures
  • Reduced animated movement in 3rd century CE.
  • Lower relief volume than Amaravati.
  • Effective use of protruding body surfaces for a suggestive look.
4. Independent Buddha Images and Rock-cut Sites
  • Found at Amaravati, Nagarjunkonda, and Guntapalle.
  • Guntapalle: Near Eluru, rock-cut cave site with small chaitya halls from the 2nd century BCE.
  • Anakapalle: Rock-cut stupas near Vishakhapatanam.
  • Karnataka's Sannati: Largest stupa site, decorated with sculptural relief like Amaravati.
5. Temple and Vihara Structures
  • Numerous stupas constructed, but few structured temples or viharas remain.
  • Notable Temples: Sanchi apsidal chaitya structure (Temple 18) and temples at Guntapalle.
6. Evolution of Buddhist Sculptures
  • Alongside Buddha, sculptures of Boddhisattvas like Avalokiteshvara, Padmapani, and others emerged.
  • Rise of Vajrayana Buddhism introduced more Boddhisattva images.
Cave Tradition in Western India
1. Overview
  • Western India features numerous Buddhist caves from the 2nd century BCE onwards.
  • Primary architectural types:
      1. Apsidal vault-roof chaitya halls.
      1. Apsidal vault-roof pillarless hall.
      1. Flat-roofed quadrangular hall with a circular chamber.
2. Chaitya Halls
  • Main Features:
    • Semi-circular chaitya arch at the front.
    • Wooden facade in some cases.
    • Stupa at the back is common across all chaitya caves.
  • Modifications (1st century BCE):
    • Hall becomes rectangular (e.g., Ajanta Cave No. 9).
    • Stone-screen wall as a facade.
    • Found at Bedsa, Nashik, Karla, and Kanheri.
  • Karla Chaitya Hall:
    • Largest rock-cut chaitya hall.
    • Decorated with human and animal figures.
    • Comprises an open courtyard, veranda, and stupa.
  • Kanheri Cave No. 3:
    • Further elaboration of the Karla chaitya plan.
    • The cave's interior is not fully finished but shows the evolution of carving.
  • Quadrangular flat-roofed design became dominant later.
3. Viharas
  • Definition: Buddhist residential and educational complex.
  • Structure: Veranda, central hall, and cells around the hall's walls.
  • Key Vihara Caves:
    • Ajanta Cave No. 12.
    • Bedsa Cave No. 11.
    • Nashik Cave Nos. 3, 10, and 17.
  • Features:
    • Decorative motifs like chaitya arches and Vedic designs over cell doors.
    • Facade design in Nashik viharas became distinct.
    • Front pillars with ghata-base and ghata-capital adorned with human figures.
  • Ganeshleni Vihara:
    • Located at Junnar, Maharashtra.
    • Named for a later-added Ganesha image.
    • A stupa was added later, converting it to a chaitya-vihara.
4. Locations & Importance
  • Junnar: Largest cave excavations, over 200 caves.
  • Kanheri: 108 excavated caves.
  • Most Notable Sites:
    • Ajanta.
    • Pitalkhora.
    • Ellora.
    • Nashik.
    • Bhaja.
    • Junnar.
    • Karla.
    • Kanheri.
Ajanta
1. Location and Significance
  • Located in Aurangabad District, Maharashtra.
  • Only surviving example of painting from the 1st century BCE and the 5th century CE.
2. Number and Types of Caves
  • Total of 29 caves.
    • Early Phase (2nd and 1st century BCE): Cave Nos. 10, 9, 12, 13.
    • Late Phase (5th to early 6th century CE): Remaining caves.
    • Particularly elaborate: Cave Nos. 19, 26.
3. Cave Architecture and Sculptures
  • Chaitya Caves: Dominated by apsidal-vault-roof variety. Example: Cave Nos. 19 and 26 with Buddha and Boddhisattva images.
  • Vihara-Chaitya Caves: Pillared veranda, hall, cells along walls, and main Buddha shrine on the back wall.
    • Grand size shrine images.
    • Some unfinished: Cave Nos. 5, 14, 23, 24, 28, 29.
4. Paintings at Ajanta
  • Early Phase (1st century BCE)
    • Caves with paintings: Nos. 9 and 10.
    • Features: Broad figures, sharp lines, limited colors, considerable naturalism.
    • Comparison: Similarities with Sanchi sculptures.
  • Late Phase (5th century CE)
    • Caves with notable paintings: Nos. 16, 17, 1, 2.
    • Features: Variations in typology, multi-colored depictions of the population, precise and elegant quality.
    • Artisan Inference: Different guilds might have worked due to stylistic variations.
5. Themes and Notable Paintings
  • Depict events from Buddha's life, Jatakas, and Avadanas.
  • Specific Noteworthy Paintings:
    • Chaddanta Jataka (depicted in Cave Nos. 10 and 17): Variations in interpretations.
    • Padmapani and Vajrapani (most preserved in Cave No. 1): Common themes in Ajanta.
6. Influences and Evolution
  • Influences seen from Vengi and Vidarbha sculptural traditions.
  • Connection to other traditions to be explored in subsequent chapters.
Ellora
  1. Location & Significance
      • Located in Aurangabad District, 100km from Ajanta.
      • Features 34 caves: Buddhist, Brahmanical, and Jain.
      • Unique due to stylistic eclecticism (confluence of styles).
  1. Buddhist Caves
      • A total of 12 caves with Vajrayana Buddhism influences.
      • Feature images like Tara, Avalokiteshwara, Amitabha, etc.
      • Characteristics:
          1. Single, double, and unique triple-storey structures.
          1. Massive pillars.
          1. Painted, though remnants are scarce.
          1. Large shrine Buddha images with Padmapani and Vajrapani.
          1. Cave No. 12: Triple-storey with various Buddha forms.
  1. Brahmanical Caves
      • Range from Cave Nos. 13-28.
      • Themes centered around Shaivism & Vaishnavism.
      • Characteristics:
          1. Monumental sculptures.
          1. Various depictions of Shiva & Vishnu.
          1. Sculptures with protruding volume & deep recessions.
          1. Varied sculptural styles due to artisans from different regions.
          1. Key caves: No. 29, 21, 17, 14, 16.
      • Noteworthy mention: Kailash leni (Cave No. 16) - A rock-cut temple carved from a single rock.
  1. Jain Caves
      • Details are not provided in the main text but it's mentioned that their pillars became ornate by the 9th century CE.
  1. Bagh Caves
      • Located 97 km from Dhar district, Madhya Pradesh.
      • Carved during the Satvahana period.
      • 5 caves survived out of the original 9.
      • Characteristics:
          1. All are viharas (monks' resting places).
          1. Quadrangular plan with a small chamber.
          1. Paintings on reddish-brown mud plaster.
      • Cave 4 (Rang Mahal): Noteworthy for its visible paintings.
      • Paintings were removed in 1982 for preservation, now in Gwalior's Archaeological Museum.
Elephanta Caves and Other Sites
  1. Elephanta Caves
      • Located near Mumbai.
      • Mainly devoted to Shaivite faith.
      • Characteristics:
          1. Slender sculptures.
          1. Distinct light and dark effects.
          1. Contemporary to Ellora.
  1. Rock-cut caves in the Deccan
      • The tradition continued throughout the Deccan.
      • Locations:
          1. Maharashtra: Closely linked with Ellora.
          1. Karnataka: Mainly at Badami and Aiholi under Chalukya patronage.
          1. Andhra Pradesh: In the vicinity of Vijayawada.
          1. Tamil Nadu: Especially at Mahabalipuram, under Pallava patronage.
      • Art developments in the post-sixth century were driven by political rather than collective public patronage.
  1. Terracotta Figurines
      • Found across the country.
      • Show parallelism with religious lithic sculptures and local traditions.
      • Types:
          1. Toys.
          1. Religious figurines.
          1. Figurines crafted for healing in line with certain belief systems.
Cave Tradition in Eastern India
  1. General Overview
      • Eastern India has significant Buddhist caves.
      • Mainly found in the coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh and Odisha.
  1. Andhra Pradesh
      • Guntapalle (Eluru district)
          1. Excavations in hills and structured monasteries.
          1. Unique site: structured stupas, viharas, and caves together.
          1. Guntapalle chaitya: Circular with stupa and chaitya arch.
          1. Vihara caves: Decorated with chaitya arches, single or double-storeyed.
          1. Dates back to the 2nd century BCE.
      • Rampaerrampallam
          1. Smaller excavations.
          1. Presence of rock-cut stupas on the hillock.
      • Anakapalli (near Vishakhapatnam)
          1. 4th–5th centuries CE excavations.
          1. Largest rock-cut stupas in India.
  1. Odisha
      • Udaigiri-Khandagiri Caves (Bhubaneswar)
          1. Inscriptions link them to Kharavela Jain kings.
          1. Primarily meant for Jain monks.
          1. Numerous single-cell excavations.
          1. Distinct carvings on huge boulders resembling animals.
          1. Caves with pillared verandas, chaitya arches, and narratives.
          1. Figures in caves are voluminous, with impressive carving.
          1. Some caves were added in the 8th–9th centuries CE.
Additional Concepts
Stupa-1, Sanchi:
  • Located at Sanchi, a world heritage site in Madhya Pradesh.
  • Originally a brick structure expanded over time and was covered with stone.
  • Notable for its carved gateways and the Ashokan lion-capital pillar with an inscription.
  • Has the unique feature of the upper pradakshinapath (circumambulation path).
  • Buddha is depicted symbolically and the gateways show profound mastery in sculpting.
Seated Buddha, Katra Mound, Mathura:
  • An iconic representation from the Kushana Period.
  • Distinct sculpting style unique to Mathura.
  • Depicts the Buddha in padmasana with two Bodhisattva attendants, showing detailed craftsmanship.
Buddha Head, Taxila:
  • From the Gandhara region, exhibiting Greco-Roman elements.
  • Curly hair, a large forehead, and distinct facial features that differ from other Indian styles.
  • Represents a fusion of Indian and Western sculpting traditions.
Seated Buddha, Sarnath:
  • Belongs to the late 5th century CE and is made from Chunar sandstone.
  • Depicts the Buddha during the first sermon or dhammachakrapravartana.
  • Shows refined craftsmanship, especially in the details of the drapery and facial features.
Padmapani Boddhisattva, Ajanta Cave No. 1:
  • A late 5th-century CE painting showcasing a Boddhisattva holding a lotus.
  • Exquisite detailing in modeling, outlines, and coloring.
  • Vajrapani Bodhisattva is painted on the opposite side, both serving as shrine guardians.
Mara Vijaya, Ajanta Cave No. 26:
  • Sculpted representation of the Buddha's triumph over Mara, a representation of desire.
  • Depicts the Buddha's journey towards enlightenment and his encounter with Mara.
  • Shows detailed and dynamic sculpting, capturing a moment of intense spiritual significance.
Chapter 5 - Later Mural Traditions
Introduction
Ajanta Paintings
  • Main Point: Ajanta is a significant site with historical paintings.
  • Context: Few sites post-Ajanta with paintings have survived that aid in reconstructing the painting tradition.
Survival of Painted Sites
  • Scarcity: Very few sites remain that can provide evidence.
  • Importance: These sites help in understanding the ancient art of painting.
Sculptures at these Sites
  • Treatment: They were plastered and painted.
  • Significance: Shows that both painting and sculpting co-existed.
Cave Excavation Tradition
  • Continuation: The tradition of excavating caves persisted.
  • Dual Arts: In many places, both sculpting and painting were done concurrently.
Badami
Badami: An Overview
  • Location: Karnataka.
  • Historical Significance: Capital of early Chalukyan dynasty (543-598 CE).
  • Context: Emerged post Vakataka rule's decline.
Chalukya Dynasty & Excavation
  • Mangalesha's Role:
    • Younger son of Pulakesi I.
    • Brother to Kirtivarman I.
    • Patronized the excavation of Badami caves.
Inscriptions in Cave No. 4
  • Date: 578-579 CE.
  • Contents:
    • Describes the cave's beauty.
    • Dedication to the image of Vishnu.
    • Records the patron's Vaishnava affiliation.
  • Popular Name: The Vishnu Cave.
  • Surviving Art: Only a fragment of painting remains on the front mandapa's vaulted roof.
Depictions in the Cave
  • Main Scene: Palace setting.
    • Shows Kirtivarman with his wife & feudatories.
    • Observing a dance scene.
    • Figures of Indra and his retinue in the panel's corner.
  • Artistic Transition: Links mural painting tradition from Ajanta to Badami in South India.
    • Characterized by sinuously drawn lines, fluid forms, and compact composition.
Artistic Style
  • Proficiency Level: Represents the skill maturity of the 6th-century CE artists.
  • Comparison: Faces, especially the king and queen's, reminiscent of Ajanta's style.
    • Features: Large eye sockets, half-closed eyes, protruding lips.
    • Technique: Simple line treatment to create volume.
Murals under the Pallava, Pandava, and Chola Kings
Murals under South Indian Dynasties
  1. Pallava Dynasty
      • Geographical Influence: Extended tradition of painting further in Tamil Nadu.
      • Key Patron: Mahendravarma I (7th century ruler).
        • Titles Indicating Artistry:
          • Vichitrachitta (curious-minded)
          • Chitrakarapuli (tiger among artists)
          • Chaityakari (temple builder).
        • Temple Constructions: Panamalai, Mandagapattu, Kanchipuram.
        • Artistic Influence: Paintings in these temples initiated by him; mostly fragments remain.
        • Style Characteristics: Round, large faces. Rhythmic lines with increased ornamentation. Elongated torso resembling older sculptural tradition.
      • Other Patrons: Rajsimha patronized paintings at Kanchipuram temple with traces of paintings depicting Somaskanda.
  1. Pandya Dynasty
      • Art Patronage: Prominent during their reign.
      • Key Sites: Tirumalaipuram caves, Jaina caves at Sittanvasal.
        • Painting Characteristics: Fragmented layers; visible paintings on ceilings, verandas, and brackets. Dancing celestial nymphs on veranda pillars.
        • Artistic Elements: Firmly drawn contours, vermilion red figures on a light background, yellow-rendered body with subtle modeling, rhythm in dancers' movements, slightly elongated and protruding eyes.
  1. Chola Dynasty
      • Duration: 9th to 13th century.
      • Artistic Peak: Masterpieces emerged during the 11th century when the Cholas were at their zenith.
      • Temple Constructions: Brihadeswara at Thanjavur, Gangaikonda Cholapuram, Darasuram.
        • Patrons: Rajaraja Chola, Rajendra Chola, Rajaraja Chola II.
      • Chola Paintings: Predominantly seen in Nartamalai; most significant ones in Brihadeswara temple.
        • Discovery: Two layers of paintings, the upper layer from the Nayak period (16th century) uncovered to reveal Chola period masterpieces.
        • Depictions: Various facets of Lord Shiva including Shiva in Kailash, Shiva as Tripurantaka, Shiva as Nataraja, and portraits of patron Rajaraja and his mentor Kuruvar.
Vijayanagara Murals
Vijayanagara and Nayaka Murals
  1. Evolution from Chola to Vijayanagara
      • Chola Achievements: Stylistic maturity with fluid lines, supple figures, and elongated features.
      • Transition Phase: Post Chola decline, rise of Vijayanagara dynasty in the 13th century.
  1. Vijayanagara Dynasty (14th-16th Century)
      • Region: Hampi to Trichy (Capital at Hampi).
      • Stylistic Characteristics:
        • Sinuous, fluid lines.
        • Profiled faces with large frontal eyes.
        • Figures are shown two-dimensionally.
      • Key Locations:
        • Tiruparakunram, Trichy: Early Vijayanagara style from the 14th century.
        • Hampi's Virupaksha Temple: Paintings of dynastic history and Hindu epics.
        • Lepakshi, Andhra Pradesh: Notable Vijayanagara paintings in the Shiva temple.
  1. Nayaka Dynasty (17th-18th Century)
      • Transition: Adopted Vijayanagara's stylistic conventions but with minor modifications.
      • Artistic Characteristics:
        • Mostly profile figures against flat backgrounds.
        • Slim-waisted male figures, dynamic movement in portrayals.
      • Key Locations:
        • Thiruparakunram: Paintings from both the 14th and 17th centuries.
        • Sreerangam and Tiruvarur: Episodes from Mahabharata, Ramayana, and Krishna-leela.
        • Chidambaram: Paintings related to Shiva and Vishnu.
        • Sri Krishna Temple, Chengam: 60 panels on the Ramayana representing late Nayaka style.
  1. Artistic Continuity
      • Nayaka paintings were essentially an evolution of the Vijayanagara style with regional nuances.
      • Exemplary Work: Painting of Nataraja at Tiruvalanjuli.
Kerala Murals
Kerala Murals Overview
  1. Evolution and Influence
      • Period: 16th to 18th century.
      • Inspiration: Blend of Nayaka and Vijayanagara schools.
      • Unique Elements:
        • Evolved from Kerala's traditions like Kathakali and kalam ezhuthu (ritual floor painting).
        • Emphasis on vibrant, luminous colors and three-dimensional human figures.
  1. Themes and Narrations
      • Source: Hindu mythology popular in Kerala.
      • Inspiration: Oral traditions and local versions of Ramayana and Mahabharata.
  1. Key Locations of Murals
      • Palaces:
        • Dutch Palace, Kochi.
        • Krishnapuram Palace, Kayamkulam.
        • Padmanabhapuram Palace.
      • Temples & Other Significant Sites:
        • Pundareekapuram Krishna Temple.
        • Panayanarkavu.
        • Thirukodithanam.
        • Triprayar Sri Rama Temple.
        • Trissur Vadakkunathan Temple.
  1. Modern Observations
      • Mural Paintings: Still prevalent on interior/exterior walls of village houses and havelis.
      • Creators: Primarily women, for ceremonies, festivals, or routine decoration.
      • Examples:
        • Pithoro: Rajasthan and Gujarat.
        • Mithila Painting: Northern Bihar's Mithila region.
        • Warli: Maharashtra.
        • Village Paintings: Odisha, Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh.
Chapter 6 - Temple Architecture and Sculpture
Introduction
Ancient & Medieval Indian Art and Architecture
  1. Nature of Remains
      • Predominance: Mostly religious.
      • Reason for Scarcity of Domestic Art:
        • Homes and artifacts were made from perishable materials like wood and clay.
  1. Temple Focus
      • Primary: Hindu temples.
      • Secondary: Some information on Buddhist and Jain temples.
  1. Considerations
      • Local Cult Shrines: Many were present in villages and forests.
      • Perishability: Due to non-stone construction, many ancient and medieval shrines have disappeared.
Early Temples
Early Temples in India
  1. Introduction
      • Transition: From stupa construction to Brahmanical temples.
      • Decoration: Temples adorned with images of gods.
      • Source of Myths: Derived from Puranas.
  1. Types of Shrines in Temples
      • Sandhara: Without pradikshinapatha.
      • Nirandhara: With pradakshinapatha.
      • Sarvatobhadra: Accessible from all sides.
  1. Key Features
      • Principal Image: Each temple had a main image of a god.
      • Architecture: Comprised a veranda, a hall, and a rear shrine.
  1. Prominent Early Temple Sites
      • Deogarh: Located in Uttar Pradesh.
      • Eran, Nachna-Kuthara, Udaygiri: Situated near Vidisha in Madhya Pradesh.
The Basic form of the Hindu Temple
The Basic Form of the Hindu Temple
  1. Core Components
      • Sanctum (Garbhagriha)
        • Literal meaning: ‘womb-house’.
        • Initially, a small cubicle with a single entrance.
        • Houses the main icon, which is the ritual focal point.
      • Entrance & Gathering Area (Mandapa)
        • Can be a portico or colonnaded hall.
        • Incorporates space for numerous worshippers.
      • Temple Spire
        • North India: Curving shikhar.
        • South India: Pyramidal tower, termed vimana.
      • Vahan & Dhvaj
        • Vahan: Mount or vehicle of the main deity.
        • Dhvaj: A standard pillar placed before the sanctum.
  1. Temple Architectural Styles
      • Nagara: Predominantly found in the north.
      • Dravida: Characteristic of the South.
      • Vesar: A blend of Nagara and Dravida. Considered by some scholars as an independent style.
  1. Evolution and Complexity
      • As temples grew intricate:
        • More surfaces were developed for sculptures.
        • Additive geometry is used to expand the structure.
        • Projection of rhythmic, symmetrical walls & niches without disrupting the primary shrine plan.
          • Diagram
          notion image
Sculpture, Iconography and Ornamentation
Sculpture, Iconography, and Ornamentation in Temples
  1. Iconography: Study of deity images based on associated symbols and mythologies.
      • Reflects regional and period-specific styles.
      • While core deity meanings persist, localized interpretations emerge based on social, political, or geographical contexts.
  1. Temple Sculptures and Placement:
      • Integral to temple conception.
      • Images vary by location and purpose.
        • Garbhagriha Entrance: River goddesses (e.g., Ganga & Yamuna) in Nagara temples.
        • Gateways/Gopurams: Dvarapalas (doorkeepers) in Dravida temples.
        • Entrances: Mithunas (erotic images), navagrahas (nine auspicious planets), yakshas (guardian spirits).
        • Outer Sanctum Walls: Ashtadikpalas (deities of directions) face the eight key directions. Various forms/aspects of main divinity.
        • Subsidiary Shrines: Dedicated to family or incarnations of the primary deity.
  1. Temple Ornamentation:
      • Specific decorative elements used in designated temple areas.
        • Gavaksha, Vyala/Yali, Kalpa-lata: Distinct decorative patterns.
        • Amalaka & Kalasha: Architectural motifs commonly found atop temple structures.
The Nagara or North Indian Temple Style
The Nagara (North Indian) Temple Style
  1. Introduction
      • Nagara Architecture: Popular temple style in Northern India.
      • Key Features:
        • Built on a stone platform with steps.
        • Lacks extensive boundary walls and gateways.
        • Earliest temples had one shikhara (tower); later ones had multiple.
  1. Types of Shikharas (Towers) in Nagara Style:
      • Latina (Rekha-Prasada Type):
        • Square base; walls curve inward to a pointed top.
        • Represents the main shikhara; garbhagriha is always directly beneath.
      • Phamsana:
        • Broader, and shorter than Latina.
        • Roof: Multiple slabs rise to a central point; no inward curve, straight incline.
        • Often used for mandapas; main garbhagriha in Latina style.
        • Evolved to feature multiple smaller towers clustered together.
      • Valabhi:
        • Rectangular, roof rises into a vaulted chamber.
        • Resemble bamboo or wooden wagons (wagon-vaulted buildings).
        • Influence seen in ground-plan of ancient Buddhist rock-cut chaitya caves.
Central India
Central India Temple Architecture
  1. Introduction
      • Regions: Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan.
      • Common Traits: Predominantly made of sandstone.
  1. Early Temples
      • Gupta Period: Modest-looking structures, primarily in Madhya Pradesh.
        • Features:
          • Four pillars supporting a mandapa.
          • Simple square porch-like extension leading to garbhagriha.
      • Key Temples:
        • Udaigiri: Part of a larger Hindu cave shrine complex.
        • Sanchi: Close to the stupa; the first temple with a flat roof.
  1. Deogarh Temple
      • Period: Early 6th century CE, late Gupta period.
      • Architecture:
        • Panchayatana Style: The main shrine is on a rectangular plinth with four subsidiary shrines at the corners.
        • Shikhara Type: Tall curvilinear shikhara, Latina, or Rekha-prasada type (early nagara style).
      • Features:
        • West-facing temple.
        • Grand doorway with Ganga and Yamuna sculptures.
        • Main deity: Vishnu in various forms.
        • Three main reliefs: Sheshashayana, Nara-Narayan, and Gajendramoksha.
  1. Khajuraho Temples
      • Timeline: Dramatic architectural evolution from 6th to 10th century.
      • Lakshmana Temple:
        • Dedication: Vishnu.
        • Features:
          • Nagara style, high platform.
          • Four corner temples.
          • Tall shikharas with amalak and kalash on top.
      • Kandariya Mahadeo Temple:
        • The epitome of Central India's temple architecture.
        • Massive structure with all features of medieval Central Indian temples.
        • Known for erotic sculptures reflecting a holistic view of human experience.
        • Stylistic sculpture traits: Sharp features, almost full relief, prominent chins.
  1. Other Khajuraho Temples
      • Variety: Hindu, Jain, and Chausanth Yogini temples.
      • Chausanth Yogini Temple:
        • Predates the 10th century.
        • Devoted to devis/goddesses linked to Tantric worship.
        • Few such temples have survived, scattered across India.
West India
West India Temple Architecture
  1. Overview
      • Regions: Predominantly in Gujarat, Rajasthan, and occasionally western Madhya Pradesh.
      • Materials:
        • Common: Sandstone.
        • Variants: Grey to black basalt (10th-12th centuries), exuberant white marble (Jain temples).
  1. Samlaji in Gujarat
      • Significance: Important art-historical site.
      • Unique Characteristic: Blend of regional artistic traditions with post-Gupta style.
      • Sculptures: Grey schist sculptures (6th-8th centuries CE); style establishes the date, but patronage is debated.
  1. Sun Temple at Modhera
      • Historical Context: Built in 1026 by Raja Bhimdev I, Solanki Dynasty.
      • Surya Kund: Massive rectangular stepped tank.
        • Significance: Proximity of sacred architecture to water bodies is ancient and became integral by the 11th century.
        • Special Feature: Possibly India's grandest temple tank with 108 miniature shrines carved within.
      • Entrance & Layout:
        • Ornamental arch-torana leading to the sabha mandapa (open assembly hall).
        • Typical of western and central Indian temples.
      • Architectural Traits:
        • Influence from Gujarat’s woodcarving tradition.
        • Lavish carving and sculpture work.
      • Central Shrine:
        • Devoid of carvings, plain walls.
        • East-facing; sun shines directly during the equinoxes.
East India
Eastern India Temple Architecture
  1. Overview
      • Regions: North-East, Bengal, and Odisha.
      • Distinctive Features: Each region has produced its own unique temple styles.
  1. North-East & Bengal Temples
      • Construction Challenge: Many ancient buildings were renovated; the majority of surviving structures are later brick or concrete temples.
      • Materials: Terracotta was primarily used for construction & molding plaques (Buddhist and Hindu deities) up to the 7th century.
      • Important Discoveries: A large number of sculptures showcasing the development of significant regional schools.
  1. Assam Temples
      • Historic Examples: Sculpted door frame from DaParvatia (6th century) & sculptures from Rangagora Tea Estate.
      • Gupta Influence: The post-Gupta style was prominent till the 10th century.
      • Regional Style Evolution: The 12th-14th centuries saw the blending of migrating Tais' style from Upper Burma & Pala style of Bengal, forming the Ahom style.
      • Key Temple: 17th-century Kamakhya temple dedicated to Goddess Kamakhya.
  1. Bengal Temples
      • Pala Style: Between 9th-11th centuries, named after the ruling Pala dynasty.
      • Sena Style: From mid-11th to mid-13th centuries, named after the Sena kings.
      • Influences: Temples exhibited the local Vanga style & were influenced by bamboo huts resulting in the Bangla roof. This was even adopted in Mughal architecture.
      • Mughal Influence: The 17th century saw terracotta brick temples combining local building techniques, older Pala period forms, and Islamic architectural elements.
  1. Odisha Temples
      • Architectural Categories: Rekhapida, pidhadeul, and khakra.
      • Key Areas: Bhubaneswar, Puri, and Konark.
      • Distinct Features:
        • Shikhara (deul) is almost vertical, and curves sharply inwards near the top.
        • The ground plan is typically square, spire appears nearly cylindrical.
        • Lavish exterior carvings, bare interiors, and boundary walls.
      • Iconic Temple: Sun temple at Konark (1240) with a detailed chariot-like structure and massive sculpture of the sun god, Surya.
The Hills
Hill Architecture in India
  1. Overview
      • Unique architecture in Kumaon, Garhwal, Himachal, and Kashmir.
      • Mix of Gandhara influence, Gupta/post-Gupta traditions, and indigenous wooden architectural styles.
  1. Influences and Traditions
      • Gandhara Influence: Notably in Kashmir, due to its proximity to major Gandhara sites (Taxila, Peshawar).
      • Travel and Interactions: Brahmin pundits and Buddhist monks traveled extensively, leading to the mingling of Buddhist and Hindu traditions.
      • Wooden Tradition: The hills had indigenous wooden buildings with pitched roofs. Some temples even adopted a pagoda shape.
  1. Kashmir's Karkota Period
      • Significance: A most architecturally rich period in Kashmir.
      • Pandrethan Temple:
        • 8th-9th century construction.
        • Unique location on a plinth in the middle of a water tank.
        • Hindu temple, possibly dedicated to Shiva.
        • The architecture reflects Kashmir's wooden building tradition with a peaked roof.
        • Moderate ornamentation, with a row of elephants and a decorated doorway as primary embellishments.
  1. Chamba Sculptures
      • Amalgamation: Mix of local traditions and post-Gupta style.
      • Notable Images: Mahishasuramardini and Narasimha at Laksna-Devi Mandir.
        • Reflect the metal sculpture tradition of Kashmir.
        • Yellow hue due to alloy of zinc and copper (commonly used in Kashmir).
      • Laksna-Devi Mandir: Built during the reign of Meruvarman in the 7th century.
  1. Temples in Kumaon
      • Notable Examples: Temples at Jageshwar (near Almora) and Champavat (near Pithoragarh).
      • Architectural Style: Classic examples of Nagara architecture in the region.
The Dravida or South Indian Temple
Dravida (South Indian) Temple Style
  1. Basic Characteristics
      • Enclosed within a compound wall.
      • Gopuram: Entrance gateway in the front wall.
      • Vimana: Main temple tower, a stepped pyramid, distinct from the curving shikhara of North India.
      • Shikhara: Used for the crowning element on top, shaped like a small stupika or octagonal cupola.
      • Dvarapalas: Door-guardians, typically fierce, guarding the temple.
  1. Temple Elements and Differences
      • Large water reservoir or temple tank within the complex.
      • Subsidiary shrines could be separate or within the main temple tower.
      • Comparison with North: No cluster of shikhara; older temples have smaller towers due to expansions.
  1. Evolution and Urban Influence
      • Temples started becoming urban architecture focal points.
      • Temple Towns: Kanchipuram, Thanjavur, Madurai, Kumbakonam. (8th-12th centuries)
      • Roles expanded from religious to administrative, controlling vast land areas.
  1. Subdivisions and Shapes of Dravida Temples
      • Five shapes: square (kuta), rectangular (shala), elliptical (gaja-prishta), circular (vritta), octagonal (ashtasra).
      • The shape is often determined by the consecrated deity's iconography.
  1. Pallava Dynasty Influence
      • Active in the Andhra region, later settled in Tamil Nadu.
      • Influences from Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and Buddhism.
      • Notable Monuments:
        • Mahabalipuram (Mamallapuram): Constructed by Narasimhavarman I.
        • Shore Temple at Mahabalipuram: Built during Narasimhavarman II's reign. Unique due to three shrines: two for Shiva and one for Vishnu.
  1. Chola Dynasty Influence
      • Rajarajeswara (Brahadeeshwarar) Temple:
        • Located in Thanjavur.
        • Largest and tallest Indian temple, was constructed by Rajaraja Chola.
        • Notable for its vimana, shikhara, gopuras, and vast sculptural program.
        • Main deity: Shiva is depicted as a huge lingam.
          • Diagram
          notion image
Architecture in the Deccan
1. Introduction
  • The Deccan region witnessed the fusion of North and South Indian temple architectural styles.
  • Vesara: A hybrid style that emerged around the mid-seventh century in the Deccan.
2. Ellora and the Kailashnath Temple
  • Timeline:
    • Late 7th/early 8th century: Expansion of architectural projects at Ellora.
    • Circa 750 CE: Control shifts from early western Chalukya to Rashtrakutas.
  • Kailashnath Temple:
    • A culmination of millennia-long rock-cut architectural tradition.
    • Dravida style with features like Nandi shrine, gopuram gateway, and vimana tower.
    • Entirely carved from a monolithic hill.
    • Rashtrakuta sculptures: Dynamic, larger-than-life, radiate grandeur and energy.
3. Western Chalukyas and Early Experiments
  • Timeline:
    • 543 CE: Pulakesin I establishes western Chalukya kingdom around Badami.
    • Mid-8th century: Superseded by the Rashtrakutas.
  • Key Sites:
    • Ravana Phadi cave at Aihole: Known for its unique sculptural style, particularly Nataraja and the saptamatrikas.
    • Virupaksha temple at Pattadakal: The most elaborate Chalukyan temple, built by Vikramaditya II's queen, Loka Mahadevi.
    • Papnath temple: An exemplary temple of Dravida tradition.
    • Mahakuta and Swarga Brahma temple: Exhibit assimilation of northern styles from Odisha and Rajasthan.
    • Durga temple at Aihole: A unique mix with an apsidal shrine reminiscent of Buddhist chaitya halls and a nagara-style shikhara.
    • Lad Khan temple: Inspired by wooden-roofed hill temples but made of stone.
4. Hoysala Architecture
  • Emergence post decline of Chola and Pandya.
  • Characteristics:
    • Stellate-plan: Complex, star-like ground plans.
    • A profusion of intricate carvings due to use of soft soapstone.
  • Hoysaleshvara temple at Halebid:
    • Built in 1150, in dark schist stone.
    • Vesara style: A blend of dravida and nagara.
    • Notable for its detailed carvings, especially the distinct elephant friezes.
5. Vijayanagara Architecture
  • Timeline: Founded in 1336.
  • Characteristics:
    • Synthesis of dravida temple architecture and Islamic styles.
    • Sculptures show presence of foreigners and lean towards Chola ideals.
    • Represents a time of wealth, exploration, and cultural fusion.
  • Documentation: Accounts by international travelers and various Sanskrit and Telugu works.
Inference
  • Deccan architecture represents a fusion of styles, both local and foreign.
  • Reflects dynamic expressions of creative architects competing nationally.
  • The structures remain of significant art-historical interest.
Buddhist and Jain Architectural Developments
Buddhist and Jain Architectural Developments (5th to 14th Centuries)
  1. Interlinked Architectural Developments
      • Three primary religious sites: Ellora (Buddhist, Hindu, Jain), Badami, and Khajuraho.
      • Vibrant developments in both Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain architectures during the mentioned period.
  1. Historical Context
      • Post-Gupta Empire: Emergence of numerous Rajput principalities.
      • Pala Dynasty (8th century):
        • Dominated by Dharmapala who defeated the Rajput Pratiharas.
        • Wealth source: Fertile Ganges plain agriculture & international trade.
  1. Significant Buddhist Sites
      • Bodhgaya: Pilgrimage site where Siddhartha became Gautama Buddha.
        • Mahabodhi Temple: Mix of dravida & nagara styles. Current structure: Colonial Period reconstruction.
      • Nalanda: Renowned monastic university.
        • Foundation by Kumargupta I in the 5th century CE.
        • A major learning hub for Theravada, Mahayana, and Vajrayana Buddhist doctrines.
        • Sculptural art was heavily influenced by Sarnath’s Gupta art.
      • Sirpur: Early Odisha-style site with Hindu and Buddhist shrines (550-800).
      • Nagapattinam: Buddhist center during the Chola Period. Notable for trade with Sri Lanka.
  1. Art & Sculpture in Nalanda
      • Evolution of the Nalanda School of Sculpture in the 9th century.
      • Distinct features: Three-dimensional forms, detailed back slabs, and delicate ornamentations.
      • Bronzes: Predominantly from the Pala Period, significant for reliance on Sarnath and Mathura Gupta traditions.
      • Shift in depictions: From Mahayana deities to Vajrayana deities in the 11th and 12th centuries.
  1. Jain Architectural Developments
      • Prolific temple builders were found throughout India.
      • Oldest sites in Bihar. Notable sites in Ellora, Aihole, Deogarh, and Khajuraho.
      • Sravana Belagola: Houses the world’s tallest monolithic free-standing structure, the statue of Gomateshwara.
      • Mount Abu Temples: Constructed by Vimal Shah. Known for intricate interior marble designs.
      • Shatrunjay Hills near Palitana: Major Jain pilgrimage site with numerous temples.
  1. Media and Materials
      • Sculptures made of stone, terracotta, and bronze.
      • Other fragile media (wood, ivory) have not survived.
      • Painting traditions were rich but few murals from the period remain.
Additional Concepts
  1. Mahabalipuram
      • Background:
        • Coastal town from the Pallavas era.
        • Important for its rock-cut and free-standing temples from the 7th and 8th centuries.
      • Sculptural Panel:
        • One of the world's largest and oldest, 30m long and 15m high.
        • Natural cleft is used cleverly for water flow, collecting in a massive tank in front.
      • Interpretations:
        • Descent of Ganga: Some believe it depicts the descent of the Ganga from heaven to earth.
        • Kiratarjuniya: Others believe it's about Arjuna's penance to get the pashupata weapon.
        • Praise for the Pallava King: Some suggest it’s a backdrop for the Pallava king’s throne.
      • Key Figures:
        • Temple: Given prominence; ascetics and worshippers sit before it.
        • Emaciated Figure: Either Bhagirath or Arjuna.
        • Shiva: Standing next to the emaciated figure, in varada mudra.
        • Humorous Figure: A cat mimicking the penance, surrounded by undisturbed rats.
  1. Ravana Shaking Mount Kailasha
      • Location: Ellora, especially in Kailashnath temple (Cave No.16).
      • Theme: Depicts Ravana shaking Mount Kailasha when Lord Shiva and Parvati were on it.
      • Sculptural Composition:
        • Lower Tier: Multi-faced and multi-armed Ravana shaking the mountain.
        • Upper Half: Divided into three frames, center having Shiva and Parvati, with celestial beings above.
        • Dramatic Effects: Use of light and shade, 3D space, and full-round images.
  1. Lakshmana Temple in Khajuraho
      • Background:
        • Made of sandstone and patronized by the Chandella dynasty.
        • Completed by 954 by Yashovarman.
      • Temple Architecture:
        • Panchayana Type: Five shrines with the main shrine in the center.
        • Parts: Ardhamandapa, mandapa, maha mandapa, and garbhagriha with vimana.
        • Shikhara: Tall, on the garbhagriha.
        • Sculptures: Known for erotic sculptures; tier arrangements on walls.
        • Interior: Decorated halls, entrance to garbhagriha with voluminous pillars and lintels.
      • Deities:
        • Main: Chaturmukha Vishnu in the garbhagriha.
        • Four shrines in each corner: Three with Vishnu images, one with Surya.
Chapter 7 - Indian Bronze Sculpture
About Sculptures
1. Historical Overview
  • Bronze mastery dates back to the Indus Valley Culture, around 2500 BCE.
  • Bronze, an alloy, is made from copper, zinc, and tin.
  • Sculptures ranged from the 2nd century to the 16th century, and include Buddhist, Hindu, and Jain icons.
2. Purpose & Use
  • Most bronzes were used for ritual worship.
  • Other applications included household utensils and artifacts.
  • Present-day tribal communities use the ‘lost-wax’ process.
3. Noteworthy Bronze Discoveries a. Mohenjodaro's ‘Dancing Girl’ (2500 BCE) - Simplified, tubular form. b. Daimabad Bronzes (1500 BCE) - Includes a chariot with simple circular wheels, an elongated driver, and sturdy bulls. c. Jain Tirthankaras (2nd century CE, Chausa, Bihar) - Exemplifies mastery in masculine physique sculpting. - Notable depiction: Adinath with long hair locks.
4. Jain Bronzes
  • Regions: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Bihar, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka.
  • Akota Hoard (5th-7th century CE)
    • Represent Jain Tirthankaras like Mahavira and Parshvanath.
    • Introduced a new format: grouped Tirthankaras and accompanying yakshinis or Shasanadevis.
5. Buddhist Bronzes a. Gupta and Post-Gupta Periods (5th-7th centuries) - Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. - Buddha is depicted with distinct drapery styles. Sarnath-style has foldless drapery. - Notable example: Sultanganj Buddha, Bihar. b. Vakataka Bronzes - Phophnar, Maharashtra, showing Amaravati style influence. c. Pala Dynasty (9th century) - Near Nalanda, Bihar. - Revived Gupta's classical style. - Worship of female goddesses, like Tara, became prominent.
6. Southern Indian Bronzes a. Pallava Period (8th-9th centuries) - Introduction of bronze casting in South India. b. Chola Period (10th-12th centuries) - Mastery in bronze casting; especially known for the Nataraja figure. - Patron: Queen Sembiyan Maha Devi. c. Vijayanagar Period (16th century) - Experimentation with portrait sculptures, such as Krishnadevaraya and his queens.
7. Key Features
  • Variety of Poses & Gestures: such as abhaya mudra, achamana mudra, and namaskara mudra.
  • Evolution of Shiva Iconography: Including kalyanasundara murti and ardhanarisvara murti.
8. Modern Legacy
  • Bronze casting remains an art in South India, with Kumbakonam being a prominent hub.
  • Chola bronzes are globally sought-after collector items.
Additional Concepts
Art and the Lost-Wax Process
1. Introduction
  • Lost-wax Process: Technique for metal object crafting.
  • Regions: Himachal Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, West Bengal.
    • Variations in technique across regions.
2. Lost-wax Process Steps
  1. Wax Model Creation:
      • Melt beeswax over fire.
      • Strain through cloth into cold water for resolidification.
      • Press through pichki or pharni for noodle-like shape.
      • Wind wax wires to form an image shape.
  1. Coating and Casting:
      • Coat with paste (clay, sand, cow-dung mix).
      • Fix clay pot for molten metal.
      • Metal used is 10x wax's weight (from scrap metal).
      • As wax melts from firing, metal flows in, shaping the image.
  1. Finishing:
      • Chisel and file the image for a smooth finish.
3. Bronze Casting
  • Requires high skill.
  • Alloy of five metals:
    • Gold, silver, copper, brass, lead.
4. Sculptures and Symbolism
  1. Kaliyadaman, Chola Bronze: From Tamil Nadu.
  1. Shiva Family: From Bihar, 10th century CE.
  1. Ganesh, Kashmir: 7th century CE.
  1. Nataraja, Chola Period: 12th century CE.
      • Represents the end of the cosmic world.
      • Features:
        • Right leg suppresses apasmara (demon of ignorance).
        • Left leg in bhujangatrasita stance represents the kicking away illusion.
        • Four arms with various symbols:
          • Abhaya hasta: Gesture of reassurance.
          • damaru: Musical instrument for the beat.
          • Flame in upper left hand.
          • dola hasta connects with abhaya hasta.
        • Hair locks touch jvala mala (garland of flames) surrounding the figure.
Chapter 8 - Some Aspects of Indo-Islamic Architecture
Introduction
Islam's Influence on Indian Architecture
1. Introduction to Islam's Expansion
  • 7th and 8th centuries CE: Islam spread to Spain and India.
  • Entry to India: Via Muslim merchants, traders, holy men, and conquerors over 600 years.
2. Initial Architectural Influence
  • By 8th century CE: Muslims started constructing in Sind, Gujarat, etc.
  • Early 13th century: Large-scale building activity under the Delhi Sultanate post-Turkish conquest.
3. Pre-existing Indian Architecture
  • India familiar with grand monumental constructions.
  • Techniques and embellishments:
    • Trabeation: Brackets, pillars, and lintels supporting roofs or shallow domes.
    • Arches: Made from wood and stone, but couldn't support much weight.
4. Introduction of Archuate Form
  • New construction technique to support domes' weight.
  • Key features:
    • Voussoirs: Series of interlocking blocks.
    • Keystones: Central stone at the apex of an arch.
    • Domes: Rested on pendatives and squinches, allowed for pillar-free interiors.
5. Fusion of Cultures in Architecture
  • Muslims integrated local cultural features.
  • Result: Mix of structural techniques, shapes, and decorations.
  • Synthesis: Via acceptance, rejection, or modification of architectural elements.
  • Style name: Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.
6. Religious Influence on Architectural Style
  • Hindu Perspective:
    • See god in multiple forms.
    • Adorned surfaces with sculptures and paintings.
  • Muslim Perspective:
    • Believe in one god with Muhammad as Prophet.
    • Religious art includes arabesque, geometrical patterns, and calligraphy on plaster and stone (due to prohibition of replicating living forms).
Typologies of Structures
Typologies of Structures in the Indian Sub-continent
1. Architectural Developments
  • Based on religious and secular needs.
  • Types of buildings introduced:
    • Mosques for daily prayers.
    • Jama Masjids.
    • Tombs.
    • Dargahs.
    • Minars.
    • Hammams (bathhouses).
    • Formal gardens.
    • Madrasas (educational institutions).
    • Sarais or Caravansarais (resting places for travelers).
    • Kos minars (mile markers).
2. Financing Architectural Constructions
  • Wealthy individuals commissioned buildings.
  • Hierarchy of sponsors:
    • Rulers and nobles and their families.
    • Merchants.
    • Merchant guilds.
    • Rural elite.
    • Devotees of a particular cult.
3. Influences on Indo-Islamic Architecture
  • Strong influences from Saracenic, Persian, and Turkish styles.
  • However, dominant inspiration from Indian architectural and decorative forms.
4. Factors Influencing Architecture
  • Availability of materials.
  • Resource constraints.
  • Skills of craftsmen.
  • Aesthetic preferences of the patrons.
5. Religion and Architectural Borrowing
  • High importance of religion and religiosity in medieval India.
  • Yet, there was a liberal borrowing of architectural elements from various influences.
Categories of Styles
Categories of Indo-Islamic Architectural Styles
1. Overview
  • Indo-Islamic architecture is divided into distinct styles to better understand specific characteristics.
2. Categories of Styles
2.1. Imperial Style (Delhi Sultanate) - Region: Delhi.
2.2. Provincial Style - Regions: - Mandu. - Gujarat. - Bengal. - Jaunpur.
2.3. Mughal Style - Key Centers: - Delhi. - Agra. - Lahore.
2.4. Deccani Style - Main Regions: - Bijapur. - Golconda.
3. Purpose of Categorization
  • Helps in comprehending nuances in architectural styles.
  • Avoids placing styles in rigid, unchanging categories.
Architectural Influences
Architectural Influences on Provincial Styles
1. Overview
  • Provincial styles in Indo-Islamic architecture had distinct influences and characteristics.
2. Noteworthy Provincial Styles
2.1. Bengal and Jaunpur - Recognized as distinct in their architectural influences.
2.2. Gujarat - Exhibited a regional character. - Patrons borrowed elements from: - Regional temple traditions. - Toranas: ornamental gateways. - Lintels in mihrabs: semi-circular niches in walls. - Carvings of bell and chain motifs. - Carved panels depicting trees.
3. Influence on Mughal Architecture
  • The white marble dargah of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej (15th century) is a prime example.
    • This provincial style influenced the form and decoration of Mughal tombs.
Decorative Forms
Decorative Forms in Indo-Islamic Architecture
1. Overview
  • Decorative forms played a pivotal role in embellishing Indo-Islamic architecture, ranging from intricate designs on plaster to high relief carvings.
2. Design Techniques
2.1. Plaster Designs - Achieved through incision or stucco. - Either left plain or colored.
2.2. Stone Carvings - Motifs painted or carved in stone. - Themes included various flowers, both local and from places like Iran.
3. Prominent Motifs
3.1. Lotus Bud Fringe - Used effectively in the inner curves of arches.
3.2. Flora & Fauna - Decorated with cypress, chinar, and other trees. - Representation of flower vases.
3.3. Ceilings - Complex designs that mirrored those found on textiles and carpets.
4. Use of Tiles & Colors
  • By the 14th-16th centuries, tiles were used for wall and dome surfacing.
  • Dominant colors: blue, turquoise, green, and yellow.
5. Advanced Techniques
5.1. Tessellation & Pietra Dura - Used for wall decoration, especially in dado panels.
5.2. Lapis Lazuli - Used on interior walls or canopies.
5.3. Decorative Elements - Arabesque, calligraphy, and jalis. - High and low relief carving: High relief has a 3D appearance.
6. Architectural Features
6.1. Arches - Varied from plain and squat to high and pointed. - From the 16th century, designed with trefoil or multiple foliations.
6.2. Roof & Domes - Combination of a central dome, smaller domes, chhatris, and tiny minarets. - Central dome crowned with an inverted lotus flower motif and a pinnacle.
Materials for Construction
Materials for Construction in Indo-Islamic Architecture
1. Overview
  • Indo-Islamic architecture predominantly used thick walls, which underwent specific finishing treatments to enhance their appearance and durability.
2. Wall Composition
2.1. Thickness - Walls in all buildings were notably thick.
2.2. Primary Material - Predominantly built of rubble masonry, a material that was easily available.
2.3. Casing & Finishing - Walls were covered with chunam (a type of plaster) or limestone plaster. - Alternatively, they were finished with dressed stone.
3. Variety of Stones Used
  • Quartzite
  • Sandstone
  • Buff
  • Marble
  • Using a diverse range of stones provided variability in design and function.
4. Decorative Touches
  • Polychrome tiles: These colorful tiles were extensively used to finish walls, adding a decorative and vibrant touch to the structures.
5. Evolution in Materials (17th Century)
5.1. Introduction of Bricks - Bricks started being used in construction, offering greater flexibility to the architectural designs.
5.2. Emphasis on Local Materials - There was a noticeable shift towards relying more on local materials, making the construction process more efficient and sustainable.
Forts
Medieval Forts - Seats of Power & Architectural Marvels
1. Overview
  • Medieval forts symbolized the seat of power of rulers.
  • Capturing a fort often indicated a shift in power dynamics.
2. Significance of Forts
2.1. Symbol of Power - A captured fort could mean the loss of sovereignty for the defeated ruler.
2.2. Strategic Importance - Forts often occupied commanding heights, providing strategic advantages. - Heights allowed for surveillance, defense, and instilled awe in people.
3. Notable Forts & Features
3.1. Chittorgarh - Largest fort in Asia and served as a seat of power for a long duration. - Known for its stambhas (towers) and water bodies. - Associated with tales of heroism and legends.
3.2. Gwalior - Praised by Babur for its grandeur. - Nearly impossible to scale due to its steep height.
3.3. Daulatabad (Devgiri) - Known for strategic entrances and complex defense designs. - Features like labyrinths that could trap enemies. - Contains twin forts and a layered defense.
3.4. Golconda - Features concentric circles of outer walls for layered defense.
4. Unique Architectural & Defensive Strategies
4.1. Commanding Heights - Utilized for better visibility, defense, and influence over subjects.
4.2. Concentric Outer Walls - Multiple layers of defense to delay and deter enemies.
4.3. Strategic Entrances - Designed to thwart large-scale breaches, even with the aid of elephants.
4.4. Labyrinths & Complex Pathways - Designed to confuse, trap, or misdirect enemy forces.
5. Stylistic Influences
  • Inside palace complexes within forts, there was a liberal absorption of various stylistic and decorative influences.
Minar
1. Introduction
  • Stambha: Another form of tower.
  • Minar: A common feature in the sub-continent.
2. Purpose & Symbolism
  • Everyday Use: Azaan (call to prayer).
  • Symbolism: Represented the might and power of the ruler.
3. Famous Minars
3.1 Qutub Minar, Delhi - Built: Thirteenth century. - Height: 234 feet. - Storeys: Divided into five. - Material: Red and buff sandstone, some marble in upper stories. - Design: - Tapering tower. - Mix of polygonal and circular shapes. - Decorated balconies. - Bands of inscriptions intertwined with foliated designs. - Associated Wit Saint Khwaja Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki.
3.2 Chand Minar, Daulatabad Fort - Built: Fifteenth century. - Height: 210 feet. - Storeys: Divided into four. - Color: Painted peach. - Original Facade: - Chevron patterning on encaustic tile work. - Bold bands of Quranic verses. - Influence: - Appears like an Iranian monument. - Handiwork of local architects, Delhi and Iranian architects.
Tombs
1. Introduction
  • Definition: Monumental structures over graves of rulers and royalty.
  • Popularity: A significant feature of medieval India.
2. Famous Tombs
  • In Delhi:
    • Ghyasuddin Tughlaq
    • Humayun
    • Abdur Rahim Khan-i-Khanan
  • In Agra:
    • Akbar
    • Itmaduddaula
3. Idea Behind Tombs (According to Anthony Welch)
  • Core Idea: Eternal paradise as a reward on the Day of Judgement.
  • Imagery:
    • Introduction of Quranic verses on walls.
    • Placement within paradisiacal elements:
      • Garden
      • Body of water
      • Both (e.g., Humayun’s tomb, Taj Mahal)
4. Charbagh Style
  • Definition: A tomb placed in a garden layout divided into four parts.
  • Example: Taj Mahal
5. Significance & Symbolism
  • Spiritual: Signify peace and happiness in the afterlife.
  • Political/Secular: Showcase the majesty, grandeur, and might of the person buried.
Sarais
SARAIS
1. Introduction
  • Definition: Structures providing temporary accommodation.
  • Location: Around cities and throughout the Indian subcontinent.
2. Architecture
  • Plan: Simple square or rectangular.
3. Purpose & Users
  • Intended For:
    • Indian and foreign travellers.
    • Pilgrims.
    • Merchants.
    • Traders.
  • Characteristics: Public domains bustling with diverse individuals.
4. Cultural Impact
  • Cross-Cultural Interaction: Due to the diverse visitors.
  • Outcome: Syncretic tendencies and influences in the cultural norms of the era.
  • Level of Impact: At the grassroots/people level.
Structures for Common People
1. Introduction
  • Architectural Feature: Convergence of styles, techniques, and decorations.
  • Setting: Public and private spaces for non-royal sections of society.
2. Types of Structures
2.1 Domestic Buildings: Structures for everyday living.
2.2 Religious Structures: - Temples - Mosques - Khanqahs (Sufi hermitages) - Dargahs
2.3 Other Structures: - Commemorative gateways - Pavilions in buildings and gardens - Bazaars (markets)
Additional Concepts
ARCHITECTURAL HIGHLIGHTS
1. MANDU
  • Location: 60 miles from Indore, elevated, overlooks Malwa Plateau & Narmada Valley.
  • Historical Significance: Habitation by Parmara Rajputs, Afghans, Mughals. Capital under the Ghauri Dynasty, romantic lore of Sultan Baz Bahadur and Rani Rupmati.
  • Features:
    • Mughal Use: Pleasure destination in monsoon.
    • Architectural Style: Medieval provincial, blend of official & residential structures.
    • Construction: Palaces, pavilions, mosques, reservoirs, baolis.
    • Materials: Local stone & marble.
    • Royal Enclave: Cluster of palaces & structures around artificial lakes.
    • Hindola Mahal: Audience hall resembling a bridge.
    • Jahaaz Mahal: Two-storey 'ship-palace' with pavilions, balconies, watercourses, terrace pool.
    • Rani Rupmati Pavilion: Offers Narmada valley view.
    • Baz Bahadur’s Palace: Courtyard with halls & terraces.
    • Asharfi Mahal: Now in ruins.
    • Hoshang Shah’s Tomb: Majestic with dome, marble jali work, brackets & toranas.
    • Jama Masjid: Large mosque for Friday prayers, red sandstone, mimbar, mihrab with lotus bud fringe.
2. TAJ MAHAL
  • Location: Agra.
  • Significance: Mausoleum for Mumtaz Mahal by Shah Jahan.
  • Features:
    • Architecture: Perfect proportions, ethereal marble, bagh & river setting.
    • Complex: Entered through monumental red sandstone gateway.
    • Layout: Chahar Bagh with paths, watercourses, pools, and fountains.
    • Structure: Main tomb with drum & dome, 4 minarets, 186 feet measurements.
    • Interior: Crypt, vaulted octagonal chamber, carved jalis, double dome ceiling.
    • Embellishments: Stone carvings, marble jalis, pietra dura, calligraphy.
3. GOL GUMBAD
  • Location: Bijapur, Karnataka.
  • Significance: Mausoleum of Muhammad Adil Shah.
  • Features:
    • Complex: Gateway, Naqqar Khana, mosque, sarai, garden.
    • Architecture: Square building with circular drum & dome.
    • Materials: Dark gray basalt, decorated plasterwork.
    • Size: One chamber, 18,337 sq. ft. floor space, 200 ft. height.
    • Dome: 125 ft. diameter, second largest in world.
    • Towers: Four 7-storeyed octagonal towers.
    • Decoration: Foliation on drum, bracketed cornice.
    • Influences: Timurid, Persian, Deccan styles.
4. JAMA MASJID
  • Definition: Large mosques for congregational prayers.
  • Role: Cultural, commercial, religious, political center.
  • Features:
    • Architecture: Open courtyard, cloisters, Qibla Liwan.
    • Significance: Mihrab indicates the Kaaba in Mecca direction.
      • Diagram
      notion image
Glossary
ARCHITECTURAL AND CULTURAL TERMS
1. Materials & Elements
  • Agate: Fine-grained chalcedony with varied colors.
  • Faience: Blue-colored artificial glass-like material.
  • Jasper: Quartz variant, used for jewelry.
  • Lapis lazuli: Rich blue semi-precious stone.
  • Quartz: Stone variety used for toolmaking.
  • Steatite: Soft stone, used for figurines, and seals.
  • Terracotta: 'Baked earth', porous clay.
  • Turquoise: Blue to green semi-precious stone.
2. Architectural Features
  • Amalaka: Ribbed part atop North Indian shikhara.
  • Anda: Semi-circular structure for Buddhist stupa.
  • Arabesque: Design of intertwined lines and flora.
  • Ardhmandap: Semi-hall before the temple's garbhagriha.
  • Batter: Wall slope.
  • Bosses: Circular embossed decorations.
  • Chaitya Arch: Semi-circular arch with a pointed tip.
  • Chhatri: Cupola on four pillars.
  • Chahar Bagh: Walled garden divided by water channels.
  • Cornice: Moulded roof line.
  • Dado panel: Lower wall section with a different finish.
  • Gopuram: Main temple gateway.
  • Harmika: Fencing atop the stupa's semi-circular dome.
  • Jali: Perforated lattice screens.
  • Keystone: Central stone at the arch's summit.
  • Mahamandapa: Large temple hall.
  • Mihrab: Prayer niche indicating Mecca.
  • Mimbar: Pulpit in Jama Masjid.
  • Pendentive: Triangular bracket connecting dome to arches.
  • Spandrels: Triangular space between two arch sides.
  • Squinch: Arch spanning square chamber corners.
  • Stucco: Fine plaster for wall surfaces.
  • Torans: Carved ceremonial gateways.
  • Trefoil: Three curves in an arch.
  • Voussoir: Tapered stone for constructing an arch.
3. Structures & Buildings
  • Bodhisattva: Refers to Buddha's previous births.
  • Chaitya: Congregation and worship place.
  • Chhatri: Cupola with a dome/pyramid-shaped roof.
  • Dargah: Sufi saint shrine.
  • Garbhgriha: Sanctum sanctorum.
  • Mandap: Hall.
  • Maqbara: Mausoleum or tomb.
  • Qila-i Kuhna Masjid: Mosque in Delhi's Purana Qila.
  • Sarai: Traveller’s lodge.
  • Stupa: Mound-like structure with Buddhist relics.
  • Vihara: Buddhist monk residence.
4. Art & Decoration
  • Arabesque: Design with intertwined lines.
  • Bodhisattva: Refers to Buddha's previous births.
  • Calligraphy: Decorative handwriting art.
  • Chevron Patterning: V-shaped patterns.
  • Jali: Perforated lattice screens.
  • Pietra-dura: Mosaic work using semi-precious stones.
  • Polychrome: Object decorated in many colors.
5. Cultural & Historical Terms
  • Ayudhas: Weapons.
  • Buddhism: Religion based on Buddha's teachings.
  • Imam: Leads Muslim prayer congregation.
  • Jainism: Ancient religion on ethical & spiritual practices.
  • Jataka: Stories of Buddha's previous births.
  • Mahaparinibban: Buddha's death.
  • Yakshas/Yakshanis: Demi-gods, nature protectors.
6. Measurement & Time
  • CE: Common Era.
  • Kos Minar: Distance marker or milestone.
 
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