What is the term for Dilute & Non-Dilute Solutions ?
Very Dilute → Hypotonic
Very Concentrated → Hypertonic
What is the formula of Carbohydrate ?
C6H12O6
What does ORS Contain ?
Water and Electrolytes ( NaCl and Other Chlorides too)
Concept of Diffusion
Diffusion is movement of particle from High Concentration of Salt to Low Concentration
For Example :
when we mix salt and water
Exchange of O2 and CO2 in Lungs in Blood is due to Diffusion
Breathe In - Oxygen && Hamari Nas Bring in De Oxygenated Blood from the Body
Concept of Osmosis
It is a Special Case of Diffusion only in case of Liquids
Hence Diffusion of Liquid is Osmosis
Diffusion is a Generic Term and Osmosis is a Specific Terms
In Osmosis, Water from Higher Concentration moves to Water from Lower Concentration
Here Having a Membrane is a must
Example:
Bloating in fingers when bathes for too much time or when immersed in water
Bloating of Raisins when immersed in water
Movement of Water from Soil to Roots of Plants
Concept of Osmoregulation
Osmoregulation is the process by which organisms regulate water or electrolyte level in the body.
Electrolytic Balance in its body to maintain Homeostasis Balance
Osmoregulation in Animals is carried out by well developed excretory system
In Human Kidney is the Principal Organ to Maintain Water and Electrolyte Balance in the Body
Osmoregulation in Plants is carried out by Vacuoles
Dry / Arid Environment →Store More Water in Vacuoles
Wet Environment→ More Transpiration
Concept of Transpiration
Transpiration of Evaporation of Water from Leaves. Some times also called Evapotranspiration
the process of water passing out from the surface of a plant or leaf
Concept of Homeostasis
the process by which the body reacts to changes in order to keep conditions inside the body, for example temperature; the same
Homeostasis is the response to keep the condition inside the body same
Homeostasis Balance is a Biological Equilibrium State
Examples
When we feel heat we perspire
In Winter We Shiver due to Contraction of muscles for maintaining heat
What is Xylem & Phloems
They are Tissues and NOT Cells
Concept of Steroid
Steroids are medicines that quickly fight Inflamation in body by slowing down the immune system.
There are two main types of Steroids
Cortico Steroids derived from Cortisol Hormone which is produced in Adrenal Gland
Anabolics help in building muscles so they mimic Testtesterone
Why should Gym Goers not take Steroids
Gym Goes generally take Steroids in order to Build Muscles Easily and in a more Flaunting way. These Steroids contain testerone, when given from outside like this steroid, after a specific time the body thinks that it does not need to produce testestorne and the body stops producing it thus leading to a case of Muscle Atrophy
Meaning of Zoonotic
From Animals to Humans
Living Being, Plants & Animals
What is a Living Being ?
G - Growth
R - Reproduce
R - Respire
M - Metabolism
Cells - Animals Cells and Plant Cells
Cell is Fundamental Unit of Life. The Term was coined by Robert Hook in 1665. Human Body is composed of Trillions of Cells. They provide Structure to Body, take in Nutrients from food and converts nutrients into energy
These cells can make copies of themselves. Cells have many parts, each with different functions. Some are called as Organelles. They are specialised structure that perform certain tasks
Structure of Animal Cell
Plasma Membrane
Provides Structure to Cell
Helps in Transportation of Materials in and out of cell (generally by Osmosis)
Nucleus
It is the Brain or Control Centre of the Cell
It also has DNA or Chromosomes
DNA is De Oxy Ribose Nucleic Acid
Liquid in Cell
Inside Nucleus - Nucleoplasm
Outside Nucleus - Cytoplasm
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Provides Skeletal Support to Cells
It helps in distribution of material
Also Helps in Membrane Genesis
There are two types of ER
Smooth ER
Synthesis of Lipids
Rough ER - Contains Ribosomes on the Surface
Ribosomes could be present in free state in Cytoplasm also
Ribosomes
They are called as Protein Factories of the Cell. They Synthesise Protein
Proteins are chain of Amino Acids
Proteins are Essentially Macro Molecules
Proteins that are
Taken from Outside - Essential Proteins
Taken from Inside - Non Essential Proteins
Mitochondria
Power House of Cell
Helps in Synthesising Energy from food that cells can use
Mitochondria also contains some DNA and this is known as Mitochondrial DNA. It is different from what is found inside the Nucleus.
DNA is passed from both parents to child. Human have 23 Sets of Chromosomes or total 46 chromosomes. 23 Chromosomes from Mother and 23 from Father
But this Mitochondrial DNA is inherited by Child only from the Mother
Golgi Body
Golgi Bodies are Packaging Bodies.
They store, process and package material to be transported out of the cell
They also help in combining sugar and protein to form GlycoProteins
Lysosomes
They are called as Suicidal Bags of the cell
They contain enzymes which can digest parts of cells
In case of lysosome rupture. The Enzyme can kill the whole cell itself. Hence called Suicidal Bags
Vacuoles
Animal Cells also have Vacuoles. They are smaller in size and many in number wrt to
Structure of Plant Cell
Cell Walls
Cell walls are made up of Cellulose
Cellulose : in the most complex from of Carbohydrate
To Give Structure, Rigidity & Shape to the cell
It permits the cells of Plants Fungi and Bacteria to withstand very dilute external media from Bursting
Fission offsprings are born using a single parent, the DNA Splits or duplicates and then eventually the cell fissions to form two Daughter Cells.
These 2 daughter cells are exact copy of the parent
Eukaryotes - Human Body Cell
Types of Cells in a Human Body
Human Body has two types of cells
Sex Cells → They present in Sexual Organs
Somatic Cells → Every Cell which is not a Sex Cell is a Somatic Cells
Difference Between Mitosis and Meiosis
Mitosis
Meiosis
When Somatic Cells Multiply it is called as Mitosis. It is needed for a Normal Growth
Formation of
Eggs in Women
Sperm in Men
is called as Meiosis
It is cell division for normal growth and development
It Happens during formation of Egg Cells or Sperm Cells. They are also called Gametes
The Number of Chromosomes in Mitosis in Daughter Cell Remains Same
The Number of Chromosomes in Meiosis Reduces to Half
From Unicellular to Multicellular - Including Meiosis and Mitosis
Until Formation of Zygote → Meiosis
From Zygote to Foetus → Mitosis
Prokaryotes - Bacteria
Structure of Bacteria
Bacteria has been derived from a Greek word which means “Rod”
Outer Covering of Bacteria has three Layers ( In Sequence from Outside to Inside it is)
Part 1 : Cell Capsule
To Protect the Bacteria from Harsh Condition and provides it protection mechanism to survive in harsh conditions
Part 2 : Cell Wall
Made up of Unique Combination of Peptidoglycan (Combination of Sugar and Protein)
Part 3 : Cell Membrane
Part 4 : Flagellum: Helps in Movement
Part 5 : Pilus: Hair Like Structure in Bacteria which sticks to the host and transfers the genetic material causing disease
Part 6 : DNA is Scattered in the Cytoplasm
Part 7 : Plasmids
Some DNA Ends Could Join, looking in a circular shape called Circular DNA called Plasmid
DNA whose ends are joined are called as Plasmids
Bacteria does not have Mitochondria
Types of Bacteria on the Basis of Shape Are
Rod Shaped → Anthrax
Spherical Shaped → Streptococcus
Spiral Shaped → Sexual Diseases like Lyme & Syphilis
Types of Bacteria on the Basis of Feeding Are
Heterotroph
All Diseases Causing Bacteria
Example : Anthrax
Autotroph
Food by Photosynthesis →
By Process of Photosynthesis
Example : Cyanobacteria
Food by Chemosynthesis →
By Making food from Synthesis of Chemicals
Example : Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria in the Roots of Leguminous Plants
Uses of Bacteria
Human Survival
It is present in Digestive System which produce enzymes to digest carbs, proteins and fats
Some even help in fighting pathogens
Agriculture
Nitrogen Fixation.
N2 is freely available in Atm. Plants use Nitrogen by means of Nitrogen Fixation done by Bacteria
Used in Making Genetically Modified Crops
Food Industry
In Making Fermented Products like Curd, Cheese, Yogurt, Yakut
Pharma Industry
Bacterias are used to make antibiotics, vaccines
Diseases Caused by Bacteria
Tetanus
Cholera
Typhoid
TB
Diphtheria
Pneumonia
Leprosy
Plague
Lyme
Syphilis
What Are AntiBiotics ?
They are chemicals which help to kill bacteria
First Anti Biotic Developed was by Alexander Fleming called Penicillin
Causes of Anti Biotic Resistance
Bacteria Develop Resistance Against Medicines Meant to kill them. Bacterias Evolve Naturally and in due to course of time they become resistant to AntiBiotics but human actions is increasing the rate of this resistance
More the Bacteria is exposed to AntiBiotics, More they will evolve and become resistant
Causes of Anti-Biotic Resistance
Over Prescription by Doctors
Not finishing the entire course
Use of Antibiotics in Fish Farming and Livestock like Chicken
Nexus Between Pharma Companies and Doctors to Prescribe AntiBiotics
Affluents from Pharma Companies if not treated can lead to Antibiotics Resistance
Chola Chaap Doctors are called as Quacks. Giving Medicine without Knowledge
Poor Health and Hygiene Conditions
Over the Counter Sale of Antibiotics without the Prescription of Doctors
New Inventions in Antibiotics has slowed down as Pharma companies believe that return on investments will be less
FDC : Fix Dose Combination (Combining Two Drugs Together Like)
This is being misused by pharma companies for brandin and selling
Example : Cheston Cold etc
GM Crops can sometimes be reasons like BT Brinjal can be cause of Anti Biotic Resistance
Use of Sanitisers and Disinfectants is also becoming a cause of Anti Biotic Resistance
Example of Anti Biotics Resistance
Klebsiella Penumonia is a major cause of Hospital Acquired Infection. It infects the blood stream and it also infects new borns. Carbapenum is an Anti Biotic used to treat this Pneumonia, but this bacteria has now become resistant to Carbapenum. Hence Collestin is now the last resort
Mains PYQP Practise Question
Question
Can Overuse and Availability of Anti Biotics without Doctors Prescriptions are contributers to emergence of Drug Resistant Diseases in India. What are the availaible options to monitor and control. Discuss the various issue involved.
Answer
Reports on Anti Biotic Resistance
WHO Report : “The World is Moving Towards a Post Anti Biotic Era in which common Infections minor Injuries which have been rrateble for decades can once again kill”
It estimates that 350 Million People will die because of Anti Biotic Resistance by 2050
UN Report : By 2050 world will observe 10 Million Deaths Annulay because of Anti Biotic Resistance
GRAM Report : Global Research on Anti Microbial Resistance
Anti Microbial is a Generic Terms which means Resistance Against Bacteria, Virus, Fungi, Protozoas
Direct Deaths because because of AMR (Anti Microbial Resistance) is 12.17 Lacs in 2019 and Indriect Deaths 49.3 lakhs in 2019
ICMR : Indian Council for Medical Research
studied 10 Hospitals and found that covid patients have acquired drug resistance infections in hospitals
Steps to Encourage Development of new lines of Anti Bioitcs
Push Model
To Do Research and Dveelopment by Giving Capital
Carb X is a start up in health sector. it was given 350 Million Dollars to develop new lines of Anti Biotics
Pull Model
When Companies Do Develop New Lines of Anti Biotics, Huge Orders are given by Govt
Pasteue Act in USA, assures sale of these medicines
Steps taken to Fight AMR
Global
WHO has started Global Action Plan (GAP) in 2015. In this WHO along with UN will help develop & implement, national action plan for Countries
GLASS - Global Anti Microbial Use and Surveliance System
World Anti Microbial Awareness Week (WAMAW) in 2015 and every year it is celebrated in third week of November.
UN has started Intra Agency Co Ordination Group in 2016
Global Anti Biotic Research and Development Partnership (GARDP)
India
Stewardship Program
It is an Initiative by ICMR for controlled use of Anti Biotics in Hospitals
Scheduling of Drugs
Lilsting of Drugs so that they are not availaible without doctors prescription
Red Line Campaign
There is a Red Line in the Packagin of the Scheduled Medicines
Govt has capped the Maximum Level of Drugs that can be used in Meat Industry
National Action Plan to fight AMR derives from the Global Action Plan by WHO
WHO Suggestions
Use Anti Biotics only when Prescribed
Complete the Full Course
Never Share Anti Biotics
Prevent Infections by Washing Hands
Prokaryotes - Fungi
Introduction
Fungi is a chlorophylless plant.
The cell wall is made up of a type of sugar called Chitin (Complex Sugar)
Examples of Fungus
Yeast
Moulds
Mushroom
These Fungi can cause Serious Diseases like
Asthma
Net Like Structure is formed in the Lungs which obstrcuts the Diffusion of Oxygen
Ring Worm
It is also a Fungal Infection
Black Fungus
It was in news during Covid. It is a rare infection which infects especially the brain, nose and ear. It infects specially those patients who are diabetic and who were goven streoids to treat covid
Because of use of Steroids, the Immune System got weakend and this fungus grows. in Some cases the eye had to be removed so that the infection could not reach the brain
Athletes Foot
Scabies
Prokaryotes - Virus
Introduction
Virus is an Infectious Microbe consisting of a Segment of DNA or RNA ( Nucleic Acid ) surrounded by a Protien Coat
It was first Discovered by Ivanvosky in 1892
They are known to be on the border of Living and Non Living
They Become Active only inside a Living Host
They are the most deadliest Virus and they can infect everything like Bacteria, Fungi, Plants and Animals
Baltimores Classification of Virus
Virus can be
DNA or RNA based
Double Stranded (ds) or Single Stranded (ss)
Baltimores Classification of Viruses
ds DNA + ss DNA
ds RNA + ss RNA
Types of Virus on the Basis of Attack
Plants - Viruses which infect Plants are Generally RNA Type Only
Animals - Viruses which infect Animals are Generally RNA and DNA based
Bacteria - Viruses which infect Bacteria are called as Bacteriophages
Fungi - Viruses which infect Fungi are called Mycoviruses
Origin of Virus
Co Evolution Theory
It says that just when first cells were formed, viruses might also have been formed
Cellular Origin Theory
Bits of DNA or RNA might have jumped out of cells
Regressive Theory
Extension of Celllular Theory. Cells might have Degenerated or broken down to form a Virus
Different Diseases Causes by Viruses
Diseases
Details
AIDS, HIV
Retro Viruses are RNA based
Hepatitis A B C D E
Inflammation of Liver
Poxes
Chicekn Poxl, Small Pox
Flu
Common Flu - Adeno Virus
Bird Flu (H5N1)
Swine Flu (H1N1)
Dengue
Ebola
SARS
MERS
Covid
Corona Virus
Diarrohea
Rota Virus
Viruses in News
Monkey Pox
It is a Zoonotic Virus. Which can Jump from Animals to Humans. It was first found in Monkeys in 1958 in Africa, In Humans it was first found in 1970’s in Africa
Geprgaphical Spread is Africa and Travellers in & out of Africa
Tranmission is only with Close Contact
Monkey Pox is not deadly
Small Pox Vaccine works well fro Monkey Pox as well
Yara Virus
It does not affect humans i
It affects Amoeba
Mudcrab Virus or Reo Virus
If affects Wild Crab
In Andhra Pradesh it had led to Mass Mortality of Crabas and infects the pancreas and intetsines
Lassa Fever
It was discovered in Africa in Lassa Region of Nigeria and it is Zoonotic. It spreads from Rats to Humans
PYQP Prelims
The answer is A i.e 1 and 2 Only
Answer is B
Answer is B
Answer is D
Answer is B
Answer is
Mitochondrial Replacement Therapy
PYQP 2020 Pland and Animal Cells
Carl Linnaeus’s Classification
Carl Lennaeus is a Swedish Scientist who had given Classification as Plants and Animals.
He is the one coined the Term Homo Sapiens
R H Whittaker’s Five Fold Classification of Living Organisms
Genetics
The Chronology and Sequence
Traits - Characteristics. Diversion Occurs due to Change in Patterns of ADCG
Chromosomes
Chromosomes contain information coded in the form of Base Pairs (A,T,C,G). Chromosome was named by H Waldeyar
It Transmits Coded Information from One Generation to Another. A Particular Species have a definite number of Chromosomes.
Human have 46 Chromosomes or 23 Pairs. Hence we are Diploids. Diploid is Presence of Two Sets of Chromosomes in an Organism cells one from each parent.
Other Examples
Chimpanzees have 24 Sets or 48 Chromosomes. In Chimpanzees - 12 Ch and 13 Ch have fused together
Pigeons have 40 Sets of Ch
Wheat has 21 Sets of Ch
Numering of Chromosomes
1st Chromosome to 22nd Chromosomes → Autosomal Chromosomes
Determines Somatic Characteristics i.e Body Features & Colors
23rd Chromosome → Sex Cells Chromosomes
Determines Gender
XX → Female
XY → Male
Difference Between Autosomal Chromosomes and Sex Chromosomes
Autosomal CH
Sex CH
1 to 22nd Pair
23rd Pair
Determines Somatic Characteristics such as Color, Height, Stature, Gender
Determines Gender
5. Structure of Chromosomes
DNA
DNA → De-Oxy Ribose Nucleic Acid
DNA was discovered by Fredrick Meischer but the Helical Structure was given by Watson and Crick
DNA is made up of Three Components
Sugar - Sugar is De Oxy Ribose
Phosphate
Nitrogen Bases → ATCG
Here
A - Adenine
T - Thymine
C - Cytosine
G - Guanine
U - Urasil (It is not present in DNA but is present RNA)
Base Pairing Rule
A Pairs only with T ( Apples on Tree)
C Pairs only with G (Car in Garage)
Here A, T Together is called as a Base Pair
Bases are joined by a Hydrogen Bond
DNA is found in Nucelus and also in Mitochondria
Nuclear DNA
Mitochondrial DNA
It is inherited from both the parents
Inherited only from Mothers Side
In Total, we have Three Billion Base Pairs
16,000 Base Pairs Only
20,000 - 25,000 Genes
Only 37 Genes
Not Applicable
It is replicated independently of Nuclear DNA
Genes
Genes are Segments of DNA which control a particular Characteristic.
Example : One Gene could control a Eye Color, Skin Color or Production of Insulin in our Body
Concept of Genotype and Phenotype
Genotype - It is the Gene Inside You
Phenotype - Physical Expression of that Gene
RNA
RNA is Ribose Nucleic Acid
Most of RNA is Single Stranded
It consists of
Sugar
Phosphate
Nitrogen Base Pairs
A - Adenine
U - Uracial
C - Cytosine
G - Guanine
There are 3 different types of RNA
Messenger RNA (m-RNA)
Transfers Message from DNA found in the Nucleus to Cytoplasm
Ribosomal RNA (r-RNA)
It is the actual site of Protein Synthesis
Tranfer RNA (t-RNA)
Carries the Amino Acid and Trasnfers it to Ribosomes
Difference between RNA & DNA
DNA
RNA
Generally Double Stranded
Generally Single Stranded
Mostly in Nucleus but also in Mitochondria
RNA can be found in Cytoplasm other than in the inside the Nucleus
It has A,T,C,G
It has A,U,C,G
Sugar here is De Oxy Ribose
Sugar here is Ribose
What is an Amino Acid & Protein
Amino Acid is an Organic Molecule that contains an Amino Group
Protein is a Long Chain of Amino Acida (NH2). Which is folded in a specific 3 D Pattern
Our Body needs 20 Types of Amino Groups. Our Body can synthesise 12 Types of Amino Acids
Mutation
Introduction
Mutation is Sudden Change in Gene. It is the Raw Material for Evolution
Term Mutation was given by Hugo De Vries in his book “Theory of Mutation, 1909”
Methods by Which Mutation can Occur (Insertion, Substitution and Deletion)
Types of Mutation on the Basis of Size and Quantity
Point Mutation
Point Mutation is Change in Just One Base Pair of Gene. by Substitution or Deletion
Gross Mutation
Gross Mutation is Change in More than One Base Pair of Gene
Example
Type of Mutation Based on Cell
Mutation in Somatic Cell
Here the Mutation cannot be passed to Next Generation
Mutation in Germ / Sex Cell
Here the Mutation can be passed to Next Generation
Types of Mutation Based on Cause
Natural Causes
These are Random Mutations
Induced Causes
By Means of Some Agents called as Mutagens like Chemicals or Radiations
Impact of Mutation
Positive Examples
Fox P2 Gene in Chimpanzee which led to development of Hyoid Bone
Neutral Examples
Change in Development of Hair and Skin
Neagtive Examples
Cancer and Allied Mutations, Sickle Cells Anaemia
Organisms Mutate and Develope Different Strains
Protein Synthesis
Information Regarding Protein Synthesis is contained in DNA
It is creation of Protein that allow the functions and structures of cells. The Information regarding protein synthesis is contained in the DNA, Inside the Nucleus DNA acts Template to form m-RNA
This Process of Formation of mRNA from DNA is called as Transcription
This mRNA moves out of the Nucleus and attaches to Ribosomes or r-RNA
t-RNA brings in Amino Acids
r-RNA makes a chain of Amino Acids which folds in 3D to form Proteins
Polymerase Chain Reaction is like Photocopy of this DNA formed
Gene
Gene is a Segment of DNA which codes a particular characteristic or Trait
Example : Color of Eye, Insulin Production in Body
Genome
The Complete Set of Genes in a cell or Living Things. The Term Genome was coined by Hans Winkler. Genome Means Complete Set of Genetic Material of a Particular Species. It is essentially the genetic blueprint of a species
Gene Sequencing
Knowing the exact orders of the base pairs in a DNA Segment.
Timeline of HGP
1990 - HGP - Read Started - Francis Collins
1995 - Celera Pvt Co Joined
2001 - Interim Report
2003 - Final Report (92%)
2016 - HGP Write Started
2018 - Earth Bio Genome Project
2022 - Complete and Final Finding of HGP (R)
Human Genome Project - HGP Read
This Project started in 1990. it is one of the greatest scientific projects ever taken in human history. the objectives of this project was
Sequencing of All Genes
To Find the Location of the Genes (To Find Where in Chromosome Gene is Present)
To Track Inherited Traits to a Particular Genes (Color of Eye, Color of Skin, Propensity of Disease)
To Store all this information or findings in the data base
Findings of HGP Read
99.7% of Genes of Humans are same i.e only 0.3% of Genome Differs Between People
There are Three Billion Base Pairs and we were able to sequence this
97% of this is repetitive in nature and 3% of it code for protein.
Largest Number of Genes was found on Chromosome No 1 CH#1 (2968) && Least Number of Genes were found in Last Chromosomes i.e Chromosome#Y - 231
We have about 20,000 to 25,000 Genes
We were able to find some diseases which tracked to a particular gene. For Example : Huntington Diseases was because of some effect due to chromosomal gene no 3
Significance of HGP
Running Notes
Genotype (Genetic) and Phenotype (External Appearence)
DNA Fingerprinting
Computational Genetic
Baby Swapping and Paternity Issues
Socio Cultural Significance
Busted Myth of Racism as 99.7% of Genes of Humans are Same
Humans have 98% similarity with Genes
Medical Significance
In Health and Disease, Identifying Genes responsible for a Disease
Huntingtons Disease CH#3 → Brain Disease
Cystic Fibrosis CH#7 → Lungs Issue of Mucus. Excessive production of Mucus in the Lungs which blocks exchange or transfer of Oxygen
For Identifying Mutations and also for treatment
Forensics
DNA Fingerprinting is used to solve paternity issues to identify criminals to identify dead bodies in accidents or disasters
to resolve child swapping issues
Dermatoglyphics - Studying the Pattern of Skin
Evolution
It helps in understanding the evolutionary process
Terms HGP Read
8% of human genome was not deciphered by 2022. It was by march 2022 that scientists have deciphered the rest 8%
Term “Junk DNA” → Junk DNA is the DNA doesn't give coded instructions → Means it does not Transcript into RNA
India was not part of this project
HGP Write
Here Write means we can re write the code.
This Project Started in 2016
The Objective of this Project is to create a Synthetic Genome
India is also a member of this project and 15 countries are part of this project
Benefits of HGP Write
Ultra Safe Humans can be made
Improvement in Efficacy of Vaccines
Customised Drugs could be made
Growing Human Organs in the Lab for undergoing Transplantation
Genetic Disorders could be eradicated
Concerns / Fallout of HGP Write
Bio Warfare & Bio Terrorism & Super Soldiers
It could change the entire course of evolution
Concerns of Designers Babies. Thus, it will lead to Genetic and Economic Divide
Commodification of Humans like Denial of Insurance to Disease Prone Humans.
NTD - Neglected Tropical Diseases → Ignored Tropical Diseases → Technology is Value Agnostics
Designer Babies
Will Increase the Divide between Rich and poor
Could also lead to Genetic Divide or it could lead to Neo Racism.
Can lead to Gender Specific Sequencing
Privacy and Confidentiality Issues
Off Target Mutations could lead to Unintended Consequences
This could change the course of natural evolution
Earth Bio Genome Project
Sequencing of all plants and animals and fungi in 10 Years.
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