✅Class 12: India people and economy: textbook in geography for class XII, 2007

Section 1 - Population

Chapter 1 - Distribution, Density, Growth and Composition

Introduction

India's Population

1. Ranking
• Second most populous country after China.
• Population: 1,210 million (as of 2011).

2. Comparison
• India’s population > North America + South America + Australia combined.

3. Implications
• Large population:
• Puts pressure on limited resources.
• Causes socio-economic problems.

Distribution of Population

Distribution of Population in India

1. Overview
• India has a highly uneven population distribution.

2. Top Populated States/UTs
• Uttar Pradesh leads, followed by Maharashtra, Bihar, and West Bengal.
• These, along with Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Gujarat, and Andhra Pradesh, comprise about 76% of the country's population.

3. Categories of States/UTs
• Large size and large population: e.g. Uttar Pradesh.
• Large size but small population: e.g. Jammu & Kashmir (1.04%), Arunachal Pradesh (0.11%), and Uttarakhand (0.84%).
• Smaller size but larger population: Not explicitly mentioned but inferred from the text.

4. Factors Influencing Population Distribution
• Physical Factors:
• Climate, terrain, and water availability.
• Higher population in North Indian Plains, deltas, Coastal Plains.
• Moderate population due to irrigation (Rajasthan), minerals and energy (Jharkhand), and transport networks (Peninsular States).
• Socio-economic and Historical Factors:
• Settled agriculture and development.
• Pattern of human settlement.
• Transport network, industrialisation, and urbanisation.
• River plains and coastal areas have historically higher population concentration.
• Urban regions like Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bengaluru, Pune, Ahmedabad, Chennai, and Jaipur are densely populated due to industry and urbanisation.

Map

Density of Population

Density of Population in India

1. Definition
• Density of population: Number of persons per unit area.
• Provides insight into the spatial distribution of population in relation to land.

2. National Data
• 2011 density: 382 persons/sq km.
• Increase: From 117 persons/sq km in 1951 to 382 persons/sq km in 2011 (an increase of over 200 persons/sq km in 50 years).

3. Spatial Variation
• Range: 17 persons/sq km in Arunachal Pradesh to 11,297 persons/sq km in Delhi.
• High Densities:
• Northern States: Bihar (1102), West Bengal (1029), Uttar Pradesh (828).
• Peninsular States: Kerala (859), Tamil Nadu (555).
• Moderate Densities: Assam, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Jharkhand, Odisha.
• Low Densities: Hill states of Himalayas and most North Eastern states (excluding Assam).
• Very High Densities: Most Union Territories (excluding Andaman and Nicobar islands).

4. Significance of Density Data
• Crude Measure: Simple human-land relationship.
• Further Insights: Consider physiological and agricultural densities, especially for a largely agricultural country like India.

Map

Growth of Population

1. Understanding Population Growth:

• Definition: Change in population number over time.

• Growth Rate: Expressed as a percentage.

2. Components of Population Growth:

• Natural Growth: Based on birth and death rates.

• Induced Growth: Related to migration (inward and outward movement).

3. Focus on Natural Growth in India:

• Annual Growth Rate (2011): 1.64%.

• Trend: High and increasing decadal and annual growth rates.

4. Phases of Population Growth in India:

• Four Distinct Phases: Each phase shows different trends influenced by birth, death, and migration rates.

Phase I

1. Phase Overview:

• Time Period: 1901-1921.

• Growth Characteristic: Stagnant or stationary phase.

2. Growth Rate Features:

• Low Growth Rate: Very minimal increase.

• Negative Growth: Observed during 1911-1921.

3. Contributing Factors:

• High Birth and Death Rates: Balanced each other out.

• Health and Medical Services: Poor and inefficient.

• Literacy Levels: Generally low among the population.

• Distribution System: Inadequate for food and basic necessities.

Phase II

1. Phase Overview:

• Time Period: 1921-1951.

• Growth Characteristic: Period of steady population growth.

2. Factors Influencing Growth:

• Health and Sanitation: Improvements led to lower mortality rates.

• Transport and Communication: Enhanced systems improved resource distribution.

• Birth Rate: Remained high, driving up the growth rate.

3. Historical Context:

• Great Economic Depression: Occurred in the 1920s.

• World War II: Despite these challenges, population growth was still significant.

Phase III

1. Phase Overview:

• Time Period: 1951-1981.

• Growth Characteristic: Known as the period of population explosion.

2. Factors Influencing Growth:

• Mortality Rate: Rapid decline in mortality.

• Fertility Rate: Remained high, contributing significantly to growth.

• Annual Growth Rate: Notably high at 2.2%.

3. Developmental Influences:

• Post-Independence Development: Centralised planning and economic growth improved living conditions.

• Natural Increase: Led to a higher growth rate.

4. Migration Impact:

• International Migration: Influx of Tibetans, Bangladeshis, Nepalese, and Pakistanis.

• Contribution to Growth: These migrations added to the population increase.

Phase IV

1. Phase Overview:

• Time Period: Post-1981 to present.

• Growth Characteristic: High growth rate, but showing a gradual slowdown.

2. Key Factors for Growth Rate Change:

• Crude Birth Rate: Noticeable downward trend.

• Influencing Factors:
• Increase in the mean age at marriage.
• Improved quality of life.
• Enhanced female education.

3. Demographic Transition:

• Trend: Shift towards lower birth and growth rates.

Regional Variation in Population Growth

1. Overview of Population Growth (1991-2001):

• Low Growth States: Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Puducherry, and Goa (below 20%).

• High Growth States: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Sikkim, Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand (20-25%).

2. Decadal Comparison (2001-2011):

• General Trend: Decrease in growth rates across almost all states.

• Specifics:
• Highest decrease in Maharashtra (6.7 percentage points).
• Lowest decrease in Andhra Pradesh (3.5 percentage points).
• Increase in Tamil Nadu (3.9 points) and Puducherry (7.1 points).

3. Adolescent Population (2011):

• Percentage: 20.9% of total population.

• Gender Distribution: 52.7% male, 47.3% female.

• Challenges: Early marriage, illiteracy, school dropouts, health issues, delinquency, etc.

4. Government Initiatives:

• National Youth Policy (NYP–2014): Holistic development, defining 'youth' as 15–29 years.

• National Policy for Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (2015): Skilling framework aligned to standards and market demands.

5. Importance of Social Composition:

• Vital to understand the population growth patterns and related social challenges.

Table

Map

Population Composition

1. Introduction to Population Composition:

• Field of Study: Part of population geography.

• Areas of Analysis: Age, sex, residence, ethnicity, language, religion, marital status, literacy, education, and occupation.

2. Focus on Indian Population:

• Rural-Urban Characteristics:
• Distribution: Varied population density and distribution between rural and urban areas.
• Characteristics: Differ in terms of lifestyle, occupation, education level, etc.

• Language Diversity:
• Multiple Languages: India is home to a multitude of languages and dialects.
• Regional Variation: Language distribution varies significantly across regions.

• Religious Diversity:
• Major Religions: Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism, and others.
• Regional Influence: Different religions have strongholds in specific regions.

• Occupational Patterns:
• Variety of Occupations: Includes agriculture, industry, services, etc.
• Regional and Urban-Rural Differences: Occupational distribution varies by location.
Rural-Urban Composition
1. Overview:
• Significance: Indicates socio-economic characteristics.
• Rural Dominance: 68.8% of India's population lives in villages (2011 Census).
2. Rural Population:
• Total Villages: 640,867 (2011 Census), with 93.2% inhabited.
• Distribution Variance:
• High rural population in Bihar and Sikkim.
• Lower in Goa and Maharashtra.
• Village Size Variation:
• Small in North-Eastern hill states, Western Rajasthan, Rann of Kuchchh.
• Larger in Kerala and parts of Maharashtra.
3. Urban Population:
• Proportion: 31.16%, showing faster growth rate.
• Factors for Growth: Economic development, health, and hygiene improvements.
• Distribution: Wide variation across the country.
• Growth Indicators:
• Socio-economic development.
• Increased rural-urban migration.
• Migration Patterns:
• Noticeable near major roads, railroads, industrial and urban centers.

Linguistic Composition

1. Overview:

• Rich Diversity: India is known for its vast linguistic diversity.

• Historical Perspective: Grierson's survey (1903-1928) identified 179 languages and 544 dialects.

2. Modern Context:

• Scheduled Languages: 22 officially recognized languages.

• Non-Scheduled Languages: Several other languages are not officially recognized.

3. Language Distribution:

• Hindi: The largest group of speakers.

• Smaller Groups: Sanskrit, Bodo, and Manipuri (as of 2011).

• Regional Overlaps: Linguistic regions merge and overlap at borders.

Linguistic Classification

1. Overview:

• Language Families: Indian languages belong to four major language families.

2. Classification Details:

• Sub-Families: Each major language family has its own sub-families.

• Branches/Groups: Further divisions into branches or groups.

3. Understanding through Table 1.2:

• Visual Representation: Table 1.2 provides a detailed breakdown of these classifications.

Table

Religious Composition

1. Importance of Religion:

• Religion significantly influences India's cultural and political aspects.

2. Spatial Distribution:

• Religious communities vary greatly across states and districts.

3. Major Religious Groups:

• Hindus:
• Predominant in most states (70-90%).
• Lesser presence in border areas, Jammu & Kashmir, North-East, Deccan Plateau, and Ganga Plain.

• Muslims:
• Largest minority, concentrated in Jammu & Kashmir, West Bengal, Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, and Lakshadweep.
• The majority are in Kashmir Valley and Lakshadweep.

• Christians:
• Mainly in rural areas.
• Concentrated in Goa, Kerala, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Chotanagpur, and Manipur hills.

• Sikhs:
• Concentrated in Punjab, Haryana, and Delhi.

• Jains and Buddhists:
• Jains are mainly in urban areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
• Buddhists in Maharashtra, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Ladakh, Tripura, Lahul and Spiti.

• Other Religions:
• Includes Zoroastrians, tribal religions, and indigenous faiths.
• Scattered in small pockets across the country.

4. Appendix Reference:

• Appendix–v for detailed spatial distribution.

Composition of Working Population

1. Classification of Workers:

• Main Workers: Regularly employed.

• Marginal Workers: Employed less frequently.

• Non-Workers: Not engaged in economic activities.

2. Proportion of Workers:

• Only 39.8% are workers (main + marginal).

• Approximately 60% are non-workers, indicating high dependency and potential unemployment or underemployment.

3. Regional Variations:

• Variation in worker proportion from 39.6% in Goa to 49.9% in Daman and Diu.

• Higher work participation in Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur, and Meghalaya.

4. Union Territories:

• Dadra and Nagar Haveli, Daman and Diu have higher participation rates.

5. Work Participation and Economic Development:

• Higher work participation in areas of lower economic development, often involving manual labor.

6. Occupational Composition:

• Primary Sector: 54.6% are cultivators or agricultural laborers.

• Secondary Sector: 3.8% in household industries.

• Tertiary Sector: 41.6% in non-household industries, trade, commerce, construction, repair, and other services.

• Male workers outnumber female workers in all sectors.

Promoting Gender Sensitivity through ‘Beti Bachao–Beti Padhao’ Social Campaign

1. Gender Sensitivity and Social Constructs:

• Gender roles in society are not just biological but also social constructs.

• Gender discrimination becomes a basis for societal differentiations and exclusions.

2. Global Challenge of Gender Discrimination:

• Recognized as a global challenge, impacting development and civil rights.

3. ‘Beti Bachao–Beti Padhao’ Campaign:

• Launched by the Government of India to combat gender discrimination.

• Aims at promoting education and opportunities for girls.

4. Female Work Participation:

• Traditionally higher in the primary sector.

• Increasing participation in secondary and tertiary sectors.

5. Sectoral Shift in Economy:

• Decline in agricultural workers (from 58.2% in 2001 to 54.6% in 2011).

• Rise in participation in secondary and tertiary sectors.

6. Spatial Variations in Work Participation:

• States like Himachal Pradesh and Nagaland have a high share of cultivators.

• Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Jharkhand, West Bengal, and Madhya Pradesh have more agricultural laborers.

• Urbanized areas (Delhi, Chandigarh, Puducherry) have more workers in non-farm sectors.

Table 1

Table 2

Graph

Additional Concepts

Population Data and Definitions

1. Sources of Population Data
• Census: Primary source, conducted every 10 years.
• Historical Perspective:
• First census: 1872.
• First complete census: 1881.

2. Density Measures
Formula

• Note: Agricultural population includes cultivators, agricultural laborers, and their families.

3. Population Doubling Time
• Definition: Time required for a population to double at its current growth rate.

4. Religion and Landscape
• Sacred Structures: Ranging from small village shrines to large temples, masjids, gurudwaras, monasteries, and churches. They vary in size, form, space use, and density.
• Religious Imprint on Landscape: Sacred structures provide a special dimension to the landscape.

5. Standard Census Definitions
• Main Worker: Works at least 183 days (or six months) in a year.
• Marginal Worker: Works less than 183 days (or six months) in a year.

6. Occupational Categories (2011 Census)
1. Cultivators
2. Agricultural Labourers
3. Household Industrial Workers
4. Other Workers

Section 2 - Human Settlements

Chapter 2 - Human Settlements

Introduction

Human Settlements

1. Definition
• Cluster of dwellings where humans reside.
• Involves grouping of people and assigning territory for resources.

2. Variation in Settlements
• Size & Type: Range from hamlets to metropolitan cities.
• Change Factors: Economic character, social structure, ecology, technology.

3. Classification
1. Rural Settlements:
• Small, sparsely spaced.
• Depend on land-based primary economic activities.
• Intimate social relationships due to less mobility.
2. Urban Settlements:
• Larger, closely spaced.
• Specialize in secondary and tertiary activities.
• Nodes of economic growth; provide services and goods.
• Complex and fast-paced life; formal social relations.

4. Urban-Rural Interaction
• Cities provide goods/services to urban and rural dwellers.
• Rural areas supply food and raw materials to cities.
• Interaction facilitated by transport and communication networks.

Types of Rural Settlements

1. Factors Influencing Rural Settlements:

• Physical Features:
• Terrain, altitude, climate, water availability.

• Cultural and Ethnic Factors:
• Social structure, caste, religion.

• Security Factors:
• Protection against thefts and robberies.

2. Types of Rural Settlements:

• Clustered, Agglomerated, or Nucleated:
• Compact villages with houses close to each other are common in northern plains.

• Semi-Clustered or Fragmented:
• Partially clustered settlements with some degree of dispersion.

• Hamleted:
• Divided into smaller units, spread over an area with each unit known as a hamlet.

• Dispersed or Isolated:
• Houses widely spaced, with significant distances between them.

Clustered Settlements

1. Definition:

• Clustered rural settlements are compact areas where houses are built close to each other.

2. Characteristics:

• Living Area: Distinct from farms and pastures.

• Pattern: Recognisable shapes like rectangular, radial, or linear.

3. Location:

• Common in fertile alluvial plains and northeastern states of India.

4. Reasons for Formation:

• Security: In regions like Bundelkhand and Nagaland for defense purposes.

• Resource Utilization: In Rajasthan, to maximize the use of scarce water resources.

Semi-Clustered Settlements

1. Definition and Characteristics

• Semi-Clustered Settlements: A type of human settlement that shows a tendency of clustering in a specific area while still being part of a dispersed settlement.

• Key Features:
1. Fragmentation: Often a result of segregation or fragmentation of a larger, compact village.
2. Spatial Distribution: Involves one or more sections of a village society living slightly apart from the main cluster.

2. Social Structure and Location

• Central Area: Usually occupied by the land-owning and dominant community.

• Outer Flanks: Inhabited by people from lower strata of society and menial workers.

• Geographical Examples:
• Common in the Gujarat plain.
• Found in some parts of Rajasthan.

3. Implications and Significance

• Social Segregation: Reflects the social hierarchy and economic disparities within rural societies.

• Cultural Impact: May influence community interactions and cultural development within the village.

Hamleted Settlements

1. Overview of Hamleted Settlements

• Definition: Settlements fragmented into several units, physically separate but bearing a common name.

• Local Names: Known as panna, para, palli, nagla, dhani, etc., in different regions of the country.

2. Causes of Formation

• Social and Ethnic Factors: The segmentation of a large village into hamlets is often driven by social and ethnic considerations.

3. Geographical Distribution

• Prevalence: More frequently found in specific areas:
1. Middle and Lower Ganga Plain
2. Chhattisgarh
3. Lower Valleys of the Himalayas

4. Significance and Implications

• Social Dynamics: Reflects the social and ethnic diversity within rural areas.

• Cultural Variation: These settlements might have varied cultural practices influenced by their ethnic and social makeup.

Dispersed Settlements

1. Definition and Characteristics

• Dispersed Settlements: A settlement pattern characterized by isolated huts or small hamlets.

• Location: Often found in remote jungles, or on small hills with adjacent farms or pasture lands.

2. Causes of Dispersion

• Terrain and Land Resource: Extreme dispersion is usually due to the highly fragmented nature of the terrain and the limited land resource base in habitable areas.

3. Geographical Examples

• India: Notable areas with dispersed settlements include:
1. Meghalaya
2. Uttarakhand
3. Himachal Pradesh
4. Kerala

4. Implications and Considerations

• Lifestyle and Economy: The lifestyle in these settlements is often closely tied to the natural environment and local resources.

• Cultural Isolation: These settlements may experience cultural and social isolation due to their remote location.

Urban Settlements

1. Characteristics of Urban Settlements

• Compact and Large: Urban settlements are generally more compact and larger than rural settlements.

• Economic and Administrative Functions: Engage in a variety of non-agricultural activities, including economic and administrative functions.

2. Relationship with Rural Areas

• Functional Linkage: Urban areas are functionally connected to surrounding rural areas.

• Exchange of Goods and Services: This connection facilitates the exchange of goods and services, either directly or through market towns and cities.

• Interconnectivity: Cities are interconnected both directly and indirectly with villages and with each other.

3. Further Exploration

• Definition of Towns: Detailed in Chapter 10 of the book, “Fundamentals of Human Geography.”

4. Implications and Dynamics

• Urban-Rural Dynamics: The relationship between urban and rural areas is crucial for understanding the economic and social interactions in a region.

• Urbanization Trends: Reflect broader trends in urbanization and development.

Evolution of Towns in India

1. Historical Context

• Prehistoric Times: Towns in India have been flourishing since prehistoric times.

• Indus Valley Civilization: Notable ancient towns like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro.

2. Evolutionary Phases

• Continued Evolution: Towns in India evolved through various periods, with periodic ups and downs.

• European Influence: Significant changes occurred with the arrival of Europeans in the 18th century.

3. Classification of Indian Towns

• Based on Evolutionary Periods:
1. Ancient Towns: Towns dating back to prehistoric times and the Indus Valley Civilization.
2. Medieval Towns: Towns that developed or grew significantly during the medieval period.
3. Modern Towns: Towns that evolved or were established during and after the European arrival in India.

4. Significance

• Cultural and Historical Importance: Each type of town reflects different historical and cultural contexts.

• Urban Development: Understanding the evolution offers insights into the patterns of urban development in India.

Ancient Towns

1. Overview of Ancient Towns

• Historical Significance: Many towns in India have a history spanning over 2000 years.

• Development: Primarily evolved as centers of religion and culture.

2. Notable Ancient Towns

• Varanasi: One of the most significant ancient towns.

• Other Examples:
1. Prayag (Allahabad): Another key ancient town with religious significance.
2. Pataliputra (Patna): Historically important as a political and cultural center.
3. Madurai: Known for its rich cultural and religious heritage.

3. Characteristics

• Cultural and Religious Centers: These towns are renowned for their religious and cultural contributions.

• Historical Continuity: Represent continuous human habitation and cultural evolution over two millennia.

4. Significance

• Cultural Heritage: Offer insights into India’s ancient cultural and religious practices.

• Tourism and Education: Serve as important sites for historical tourism and education.

Medieval Towns

1. Historical Background

• Medieval Roots: About 100 existing towns in India originated in the medieval period.

2. Development and Characteristics

• As Centers of Power: Most medieval towns developed as headquarters of principalities and kingdoms.

• Fort Towns: Many evolved on the ruins of ancient towns, often fortified.

3. Notable Medieval Towns

• Key Examples:
1. Delhi: A prominent medieval town, known for its rich history and architecture.
2. Hyderabad: Renowned for its cultural heritage and historical significance.
3. Jaipur: Known for its distinctive architecture and royal history.
4. Lucknow: A center of culture and governance during the medieval period.
5. Agra: Famous for its Mughal heritage, including the Taj Mahal.
6. Nagpur: Historically significant as a center of commerce and governance.

4. Significance

• Cultural and Historical Importance: These towns are key to understanding India's medieval history and culture.

• Architectural Heritage: Rich in architectural marvels, reflecting the era's styles and influences.

Modern Towns

1. European Influence in Development

• Initial Development: Europeans, particularly the British, developed several towns in India.

• Coastal Beginnings: Began with coastal trading ports like Surat, Daman, Goa, and Pondicherry.

2. British Consolidation and Expansion

• Principal Nodes: Focused on Mumbai (Bombay), Chennai (Madras), and Kolkata (Calcutta), building them in the British style.

• Types of Towns Developed:
1. Administrative Centers: Established as centers of British rule.
2. Hill Towns: Developed as summer resorts.
3. Military and Civil Areas: Added to existing towns for administrative and military purposes.

3. Industrial Towns

• Post-1850 Development: Emergence of towns based on modern industries.

• Example: Jamshedpur as a notable industrial town.

4. Post-Independence Town Development

• Administrative Headquarters: New towns like Chandigarh, Bhubaneswar, Gandhinagar, Dispur.

• Industrial Centers: Towns like Durgapur, Bhilai, Sindri, Barauni.

• Satellite Towns: Development around metropolitan cities, e.g., Ghaziabad, Rohtak, Gurugram around Delhi.

5. Recent Trends

• Rural Investment: Increased investment in rural areas leading to the development of medium and small towns across the country.

Table 1

Urbanization in India

1. Measurement of Urbanisation

• Urban Population Percentage: Urbanisation is measured by the percentage of urban population to the total population.

2. Urbanisation Level in India (2011)

• Percentage: 31.16%, relatively low compared to developed countries.

• Growth: The urban population increased eleven-fold during the 20th century.

3. Factors Contributing to Urban Growth

• Urban Centre Enlargement: Expansion of existing urban areas.

• Emergence of New Towns: Development of new urban areas contributing to overall urban growth.

4. Recent Trends in Urbanisation

• Slowing Growth Rate: The growth rate of urbanization has decelerated in the last two decades.

Functional Classification of Towns

1. Role and Specialization of Towns

• Central or Nodal Places: Many towns and cities serve as central points for surrounding areas.

• Specialized Functions: Some towns and cities are known for specific activities, products, or services.

2. Multiple Functions of Towns

• Diversity of Roles: Each town typically performs a variety of functions.

• Dominant Functions: The classification of towns can be based on their dominant or specialized functions.

3. Classification of Indian Cities and Towns

• Based on Specialized Functions: Indian cities and towns are broadly classified according to their main functional roles.

Administrative towns and cities

1. Definition of Administrative Towns and Cities

• Purpose: These towns host the administrative headquarters of higher order.

2. Characteristics of Administrative Towns

• Government Function: Primarily serve as centers for governmental and bureaucratic functions.

• Infrastructure: Often well-developed in terms of infrastructure to support administrative activities.

3. Examples of Administrative Towns in India

• Notable Cities:
1. Chandigarh
2. New Delhi
3. Bhopal
4. Shillong
5. Guwahati
6. Imphal
7. Srinagar
8. Gandhinagar
9. Jaipur
10. Chennai

Industrial towns

1. Definition of Industrial Towns

• Driving Force: Industries are the prime motive force behind these towns.

2. Characteristics of Industrial Towns

• Economic Activity: Dominated by manufacturing and industrial activities.

• Urban Development: Often characterized by the presence of factories, industrial complexes, and worker housing.

3. Examples of Industrial Towns in India

• Notable Industrial Cities:
1. Mumbai
2. Salem
3. Coimbatore
4. Modinagar
5. Jamshedpur
6. Hugli
7. Bhilai

Transport Cities

1. Definition of Transport Cities

• Primary Function: Cities primarily engaged in transportation-related activities.

2. Types of Transport Cities

• Port Cities:
• Engaged in export and import activities.
• Examples include Kandla, Kochi, Kozhikode, Vishakhapatnam.

• Inland Transport Hubs:
• Central points for inland transportation.
• Examples include Agra, Dhulia, Mughalsarai, Itarsi, Katni.

3. Characteristics of Transport Cities

• Economic Focus: Their economy is largely dependent on transportation activities.

• Infrastructure Development: Well-developed transportation infrastructure like ports, railways, and highways.

Commercial towns

1. Definition of Commercial Towns

• Primary Focus: Specializing in trade and commerce activities.

2. Characteristics of Commercial Towns

• Economic Activities: Dominated by trading, business, and commercial enterprises.

• Market Development: Often feature well-developed marketplaces and trading centers.

3. Examples of Commercial Towns in India

• Notable Cities:
1. Kolkata
2. Saharanpur
3. Satna

Mining towns

1. Definition of Mining Towns

• Development Basis: These towns have developed in areas rich in minerals.

2. Characteristics of Mining Towns

• Economic Focus: Predominantly centered around mining activities.

• Infrastructure: Often characterized by the presence of mines, related industries, and worker housing.

3. Examples of Mining Towns in India

• Notable Towns:
1. Raniganj
2. Jharia
3. Digboi
4. Ankaleshwar
5. Singrauli

Garrison Cantonment towns

1. Definition of Garrison Cantonment Towns

• Primary Characteristic: Towns that emerged primarily as garrison locations.

2. Features of Garrison Cantonment Towns

• Military Presence: Characterized by significant military presence and related infrastructure.

• Development: Often developed around military bases or cantonments.

3. Examples of Garrison Cantonment Towns in India

• Notable Towns:
1. Ambala
2. Jalandhar
3. Mhow
4. Babina
5. Udhampur

Educational towns

1. Definition of Educational Towns

• Origin: Began as centers of education and developed into major campus towns.

2. Characteristics of Educational Towns

• Academic Focus: Predominantly focused on educational institutions and activities.

• Campus Development: Often feature expansive university campuses and related facilities.

3. Examples of Educational Towns in India

• Notable Towns:
1. Roorkee
2. Varanasi
3. Aligarh
4. Pilani
5. Allahabad

Religious and cultural towns

1. Definition of Religious and Cultural Towns

• Significance: These towns are known for their religious and cultural importance.

2. Characteristics of Religious and Cultural Towns

• Cultural Heritage: Rich in religious and cultural heritage, often with historical temples, shrines, and cultural sites.

• Pilgrimage Centers: Frequently serve as major centers for pilgrimage and religious festivals.

3. Examples of Religious and Cultural Towns in India

• Notable Towns:
1. Varanasi
2. Mathura
3. Amritsar
4. Madurai
5. Puri
6. Ajmer
7. Pushkar
8. Tirupati
9. Kurukshetra
10. Haridwar
11. Ujjain

Tourist towns

1. Definition of Tourist Towns

• Tourism Focus: Towns are primarily known for their appeal as tourist destinations.

2. Characteristics of Tourist Towns

• Attractions: Often feature natural beauty, historical sites, and cultural attractions.

• Tourism Infrastructure: Developed with facilities like hotels, resorts, and recreational areas.

3. Dynamic Nature of Cities

• Function Evolution: The functions of these cities are dynamic and change over time.

• Multifunctional Development: As cities grow, they often become multifunctional, incorporating industry, business, administration, transport, etc.

• Intertwined Functions: Functions become so intertwined that the city cannot be categorized into a single functional class.

4. Examples of Tourist Towns in India

• Notable Destinations:
1. Nainital
2. Mussoorie
3. Shimla
4. Pachmarhi
5. Jodhpur
6. Jaisalmer
7. Udagamandalam (Ooty)
8. Mount Abu

Additional Concepts

1. Objective of the Smart Cities Mission

• Core Aim: To promote urban areas that provide essential infrastructure, a sustainable environment, and a high quality of life.

2. Features of Smart Cities

• Smart Solutions: Application of smart solutions for enhancing infrastructure and services.

• Examples:
• Reducing disaster vulnerability.
• Efficient resource use.
• Cost-effective services.

3. Focus Areas

• Sustainable and Inclusive Development: Emphasis on development that is both sustainable and inclusive.

• Compact Area Model: Focus on developing compact areas as a replicable model.

• Lighthouse Effect: Creating models that can guide and inspire other cities.

4. Mission Impact

• Model for Urban Development: Aims to set a standard for urban development that other cities can aspire to.

Section 3 - Land Resources and Agriculture

Chapter 3 - Land Resources and Agriculture

Introduction

Land Use and Its Importance

1. Introduction
• Land varies in its form and functionality.
• Different terrains are suited for different purposes.

2. Human Interaction with Land
• Land is a pivotal resource for humans, serving multiple purposes.
1. Residential and Recreational
• Buildings: Schools, homes, and other structures.
• Parks: Areas designated for recreation.
2. Production and Livelihood
• Fields: Areas where crops are cultivated.
• Pastures: Land where animals graze.
3. Infrastructure
• Roads: Pathways for travel and transportation.

3. Inference
• The diverse uses of land play a crucial role in human life and sustenance.

Land use Categories

1. Land Use Records Maintenance

• Land Revenue Department: Responsible for maintaining land-use records.

• Reporting vs. Geographical Area: Land use categories contribute to the reporting area, which differs from the geographical area.

2. Geographical Area Measurement

• Survey of India: Tasked with measuring the geographical area of administrative units in India.

• Fixed Measurements: Geographical area measurements remain fixed as per Survey of India standards.

3. Difference Between Land Use and Geographical Area

• Land Use Changes: The reporting area can change based on land revenue records.

• Geographical Area Stability: The geographical area remains constant according to the Survey of India.

4. Familiarity with Land Use Categories

• Educational Reference: These categories are often included in Social Science textbooks, like in Class X.

5. Land Use Categories in Land Revenue Records

• Enumeration: Categories are detailed in the Land Revenue Records.

Forests

1. Forest Cover vs. Classified Forest Area

• Actual Forest Cover: Refers to the physical area covered by forests.

• Classified Forest Area: The area identified and demarcated by the government for forest growth.

2. Land Revenue Records and Forests

• Consistency with Classified Forests: Land revenue records align with the area classified as forest, not necessarily the actual forest cover.

3. Discrepancy in Forest Area

• Potential Misleading Increase: There can be an increase in the classified forest area in records without a corresponding increase in actual forest cover.

Barren and Wastelands

1. Definition of Barren and Wastelands

• Wasteland Category: Includes land areas like barren hilly terrains, desert lands, and ravines.

2. Characteristics of Barren and Wastelands

• Non-cultivable Nature: These lands typically cannot be brought under cultivation with the available technology.

• Challenging Terrain: Often characterized by harsh landscapes and unsuitable soil conditions.

Land put to Non-agricultural Uses

1. Non-agricultural Land Use Definition

• Land Use Category: Encompasses land used for purposes other than agriculture.

2. Types of Non-agricultural Land Use

• Settlements: Includes land under rural and urban settlements.

• Infrastructure: Covers areas used for roads, canals, etc.

• Commercial and Industrial Areas: Land used for industries, shops, and other business activities.

3. Influence of Economic Activities on Land Use

• Impact of Secondary and Tertiary Activities: Expansion in these activities leads to an increase in non-agricultural land use.

The area under Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands

1. Permanent Pastures and Grazing Lands

• Land Use Type: Refers to areas specifically designated for pastures and grazing.

2. Ownership of Pasture Lands

• Village Panchayat and Government Ownership: Most of these lands are owned by the village Panchayat or the Government.

• Private Ownership: A smaller portion of this land type is privately owned.

3. Common Property Resources

• Village Panchayat Land: Land owned by the village Panchayat is classified under ‘Common Property Resources.’

The area under Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves (Not included in Net Sown

1. Definition of Miscellaneous Tree Crops and Groves

• Land Use Category: Includes land used for orchards and fruit trees.

• Exclusion from Net Sown Area: This category is not included in the net sown area calculation.

2. Ownership Patterns

• Predominantly Private Ownership: A significant portion of this land category is owned privately.

Culturable Wasteland

1. Definition of Culturable Wasteland

• Fallow Land: Land that remains uncultivated for more than five years falls under this category.

2. Potential for Cultivation

• Reclamation Possibility: This land can be made cultivable through reclamation practices.

Current Fallow

1. Definition of Current Fallow Land

• Cultivation Gap: Land that is left uncultivated for one or less than one agricultural year.

2. Purpose of Fallowing

• Cultural Practice: Fallowing is adopted as a practice to give the land a rest.

• Recouping Fertility: Allows the land to regain lost fertility through natural processes.

Fallow other than the Current Fallow

1. Definition of Fallow Other Than Current Fallow

• Duration of Non-Cultivation: Refers to cultivable land left uncultivated for more than a year but less than five years.

2. Distinction from Other Categories

• Culturable Wasteland: If the land remains uncultivated for more than five years, it is classified as culturable wasteland.

Net Area Sown

1. Definition of Net Area Sown

• Agricultural Land Use: Refers to the physical extent of land where crops are actually sown and harvested.

Graph

Land-use Changes in India

1. Factors Influencing Land-use Changes

• Economic Activities: The nature of economic activities significantly influences land use.

• Fixed Land Area: Despite changing economic activities, the total land area remains constant.

2. Types of Economic Changes Affecting Land-use

• Growth of Economy: Increase in population, income levels, and technology leads to more land-use pressure.

• Economic Composition Shift: The shift from primary to secondary and tertiary sectors, common in developing countries like India, leads to a shift from agricultural to non-agricultural land use.

• Pressure on Agricultural Land: Despite a reduced contribution to GDP, agricultural land remains under pressure due to:
• The slow decline in agricultural dependency.
• Growing population to feed.

3. Land-use Changes in India (1950–51 to 2014–15)

• Increase in Categories:
1. The area under Forest: Increased due to demarcation, not actual forest cover.
2. Non-agricultural Uses: Highest increase due to industrial and services sectors growth.
3. Current Fallow Lands: Fluctuates based on rainfall and cropping cycles.
4. Net Area Sown: Recent increase, previously decreasing due to non-agricultural expansion.

• Decrease in Categories:
1. Barren and Wasteland: Decrease due to agricultural and non-agricultural pressures.
2. Culturable Wasteland: Decline due to similar reasons.
3. Pastures and Tree Crops: Decline due to agricultural expansion and illegal encroachments.

4. Implications of Land-use Changes

• Agricultural vs Non-agricultural Balance: Reflects the evolving economic structure of India.

• Environmental Concerns: Raises issues related to sustainable land management and conservation.

Common Property Resources

1. Definition
• Natural resources owned by the state for community use.
• No individual has property rights, but community members have access and usage rights with specific obligations.

2. Types of Land Ownership
• Private Land: Owned by an individual(s).
• Common Property Resources: Owned by the state for community benefit.

3. Importance of CPRs
• For Livelihood: Crucial for landless, marginal farmers, and weaker sections.
• Depend on CPRs for fodder, fuel, and minor forest products.
• For Women: Major role in collecting fuel and fodder in rural areas.
• Products from CPRs include fruits, nuts, fiber, medicinal plants, etc.

4. Examples of CPRs
• Community forests
• Pasture lands
• Village water bodies
• Public spaces with communal rights of use and management responsibility.

5. Relevance in Rural Areas
• Vital source of income due to limited land access.
• Dependence on livestock and resources from CPRs.
• Women's role highlighted in the collection of resources, especially in degraded areas.

Agricultural Land Use in India

1. Importance of Land in Agriculture

• Land-based Activity: Agriculture relies more on land compared to secondary and tertiary activities.

• Poverty Correlation: Lack of land access is directly linked to poverty in rural areas.

• Land Quality and Productivity: The quality of land significantly impacts agricultural productivity.

• Social and Economic Value: Land ownership in rural areas has social value and provides security.

2. Total Stock of Agricultural Land

• Calculation: Sum of net sown area, all fallow lands, and culturable wasteland.

• Marginal Decline: There's been a slight decrease in total cultivable land as a percentage of the total reporting area.

3. Limited Scope for Expansion

• Constraints: Limited potential for increasing the net sown area in India.

• Need for Land-Saving Technologies:
• Technologies to increase yield per unit area.
• Technologies to increase total output from all crops by enhancing land-use intensity.

Cropping Seasons in India

1. Distinct Cropping Seasons in Northern and Interior India

• Kharif Season:
• Time Period: Coincides with the Southwest Monsoon.
• Crops: Includes tropical crops like rice, cotton, jute, jowar, bajra, and tur.

• Rabi Season:
• Time Period: Starts with winter onset in October-November, ends in March-April.
• Crops: Facilitates the cultivation of temperate and subtropical crops like wheat, gram, and mustard.

• Zaid Season:
• Time Period: Short summer cropping season post-rabi harvest.
• Crops: Grows watermelons, cucumbers, vegetables, and fodder on irrigated lands.

2. Cropping Seasons in Southern India

• Year-Round Tropical Crops:
• Climate: High temperatures allow for the growth of tropical crops throughout the year.
• Soil Moisture Dependency: Crops can be grown thrice a year, provided there is sufficient soil moisture.

Types of Farming

1. Classification of Farming Based on Moisture Source

• Irrigated Farming: Utilizes additional water sources for crops apart from rainfall.

• Rainfed (Barani) Farming: Relies solely on rainfall for crop moisture.

2. Types of Irrigated Farming

• Protective Irrigation:
• Objective: To protect crops from soil moisture deficiency.
• Strategy: Acts as a supplementary water source, aiming to provide moisture to the maximum area.

• Productive Irrigation:
• Objective: To ensure high productivity by providing sufficient soil moisture.
• Water Input: Higher per unit area than protective irrigation.

3. Rainfed Farming Categories

• Dryland Farming:
• Location: Areas with less than 75 cm annual rainfall.
• Crops: Hardy and drought-resistant like ragi, bajra, moong, gram.
• Practices: Soil moisture conservation and rainwater harvesting.

• Wetland Farming:
• Rainfall: Exceeds soil moisture requirement of plants during the rainy season.
• Risks: Flood and soil erosion hazards.
• Crops: Water-intensive crops like rice, jute, sugarcane.
• Additional Activities: Aquaculture in freshwater bodies.

Foodgrains

1. Importance of Foodgrains in Indian Agriculture

• Dominant Crops: Occupy about two-thirds of the total cropped area in India.

• Prevalence: Predominant in both subsistence and commercial agricultural economies.

2. Classification of Foodgrains

• Based on Grain Structure:
• Cereals: Includes major staple crops like rice, wheat, maize, etc.
• Pulses: Comprises various types of lentils and beans.

Cereals

1. Significance of Cereals in Indian Agriculture

• Proportion of Cropped Area: Cereals occupy about 54% of the total cropped area in India.

• Global Standing: India ranks third in cereal production, following China and the U.S.A., contributing about 11% of the world's cereals.

2. Types of Cereals

• Classification:
• Fine Grains: Includes rice and wheat.
• Coarse Grains: Encompasses jowar, bajra, maize, ragi, etc.

Rice

1. Importance of Rice

• Staple Food: A primary food source for the majority of India's population.

• Global Contribution: India contributes 22.07% to global rice production, ranking second after China (as of 2018).

2. Varieties and Cultivation Regions

• Varieties: India grows about 3,000 varieties of rice.

• Adaptability: Cultivated from sea level up to 2,000m altitude.

• Regions: Grows in diverse regions, from humid eastern India to dry areas like Punjab, Haryana, western U.P., and northern Rajasthan.

3. Cropping Patterns

• Southern States and West Bengal: Conditions allow for two or three crops a year.

• West Bengal: Practices three crops named ‘aus’, ‘aman’, and ‘boro’.

• Himalayas and Northwest India: Grown as a kharif crop during the southwest Monsoon season.

4. Rice Cultivation in India

• Leading States: West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, and Punjab are major rice producers.

• High Yield States: High yields in Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, West Bengal, and Kerala.

• Irrigated Cultivation: Extensive in Punjab, Haryana, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.

• Green Revolution Impact: Introduction in the 1970s in Punjab and Haryana with improved seed varieties and farming practices.

• Low Yield Areas: Rainfed areas in Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha.

Wheat

1. Significance of Wheat in India

• Position: Second most important cereal crop in India after rice.

• Global Contribution: Accounts for about 12.8% of the world's total wheat production (as of 2017).

2. Cultivation Characteristics

• Temperature Requirement: Primarily a temperate zone crop.

• Season: Cultivated in India during the rabi (winter) season.

• Geographical Spread: 85% of the cultivation is in the Indo-Gangetic Plain, Malwa Plateau, and Himalayas up to 2,700m altitude.

• Irrigation: Mostly grown under irrigated conditions, except in the Himalayan highlands and parts of the Malwa plateau.

3. Area and Yield of Wheat

• Cultivation Area: Occupies about 14% of the total cropped area in India.

• Leading States: Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, and Rajasthan.

• Yield Variations:
• High Yield: Punjab and Haryana (>4,000 kg/ha).
• Moderate Yield: Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Bihar.
• Low Yield: Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, and Jammu and Kashmir (rainfed conditions).

Jowar

1. Importance of Jowar in Indian Agriculture

• Share in Cropped Area: Jowar, or sorghum, accounts for about 5.3% of the total cropped area in India.

• Role Among Coarse Cereals: It is a major component, with coarse cereals occupying about 16.50% of the total cropped area.

2. Geographical Distribution and Production

• Primary Regions: A main food crop in the semi-arid areas of central and southern India.

• Leading Producer: Maharashtra is the largest producer, contributing over half of India's jowar production.

• Other Significant States: Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, and Telangana.

3. Cultivation Patterns

• Sowing Seasons:
• Kharif and Rabi: In southern states.
• Kharif only: In northern India, predominantly as a fodder crop.

• Rainfed Crop: Predominantly rainfed south of the Vindhyachal, with low yield levels in these regions.

Bajra

1. Characteristics of Bajra Cultivation

• Climatic Conditions: Thrives in hot and dry conditions, predominantly in the northwestern and western parts of India.

• Drought Resistance: A hardy crop, resistant to dry spells and droughts.

2. Cultivation Practices

• Mixed Cropping: Often cultivated alone or as part of mixed cropping.

• Cultivation Area: Occupies about 5.2% of the total cropped area in the country.

3. Leading Producer States

• Major Producers: Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Haryana.

• Yield Variability:
• Low and fluctuating yields in Rajasthan due to rainfed conditions.
• Increased yields in Haryana and Gujarat due to drought-resistant varieties and expanded irrigation.

Maize

1. Overview of Maize Cultivation

• Dual Purpose: Grown both as a food and fodder crop.

• Climatic Conditions: Best suited for semi-arid climates and inferior soil types.

• Cultivation Area: Accounts for about 3.6% of the total cropped area in India.

2. Geographic Distribution

• Widespread Cultivation: Grown throughout India, with exceptions like Punjab and the eastern and north-eastern regions.

• Leading Producer States: Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh.

3. Yield Characteristics

• Comparative Yield: Has a higher yield than other coarse cereals.

• Regional Yield Variations: High yield in southern states, declining towards the central parts of India.

Pulses

1. Importance of Pulses

• Nutritional Value: Rich source of proteins, essential for vegetarian diets.

• Soil Fertility: Legume crops that enhance soil fertility through nitrogen fixation.

2. India's Position in Global Production

• Leading Producer: India is a major producer of pulses worldwide.

3. Geographic Concentration

• Primary Regions: Cultivation concentrated in drylands of Deccan and central plateaus, and northwestern India.

• Cultivation Area: Pulses cover about 11% of India's total cropped area.

4. Cultivation Characteristics

• Rainfed Crops: Mostly grown in rainfed conditions.

• Yield Variability: Yields are low and subject to annual fluctuations.

5. Main Varieties of Pulses

• Major Types: Gram (chickpeas) and tur (pigeon pea) are the primary pulses cultivated in India.

Gram

1. Climatic and Geographical Conditions for Gram

• Cultivation Areas: Grows in subtropical areas, primarily in the central, western, and northwestern parts of India.

• Season: Cultivated as a rainfed crop during the rabi season.

2. Irrigation and Cropping Pattern

• Water Requirement: Requires only one or two light showers or irrigations.

• Displacement by Wheat: Largely replaced by wheat in Haryana, Punjab, and northern Rajasthan due to the Green Revolution.

3. Area and Production

• Cultivation Area: Covers about 2.8% of the total cropped area in India.

• Leading Producer States: Major producers include Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and Rajasthan.

4. Yield Characteristics

• Yield Variability: Continues to have low and fluctuating yields, even in irrigated areas.

Tur (Arhar)

1. Significance of Tur (Arhar)

• Position in Pulses: Second most important pulse crop in India, also known as red gram or pigeon pea.

2. Cultivation Conditions and Area

• Geographical Focus: Cultivated in dry areas of central and southern Indian states.

• Land Use: Grown on marginal lands under rainfed conditions.

• Cultivation Area: Occupies about 2% of India's total cropped area.

3. Leading Producer States

• Major Contributor: Maharashtra contributes about one-third of India's total tur production.

• Other Producers: Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, and Madhya Pradesh.

4. Yield and Performance

• Low Yield: Per hectare output is low.

• Inconsistent Performance: The crop's performance varies significantly.

Oilseeds

1. Purpose of Oilseed Cultivation

• Edible Oil Production: Grown primarily for extracting edible oils.

2. Geographical Distribution

• Key Regions: Drylands of Malwa plateau, Marathwada, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Telangana, Rayalseema region of Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka plateau.

• Cultivation Area: Oilseeds cover about 14% of the total cropped area in India.

3. Main Types of Oilseeds

• Groundnut: A major oilseed crop.

• Rapeseed and Mustard: Widely cultivated for oil extraction.

• Soyabean: Increasingly important oilseed crop.

• Sunflower: Another key oilseed crop in India.

Groundnut

1. Global Contribution of India in Groundnut Production

• Production Share: India produces about 18.8% of the total global groundnut production (as of 2018).

2. Cultivation Characteristics

• Cropping Seasons: Primarily a rainfed kharif crop in drylands; also cultivated in rabi season in southern India.

• Cultivation Area: Occupies about 3.6% of the total cropped area in India.

3. Major Producing States

• Leading Producers: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra.

• Yield Variations:
• High Yield: Tamil Nadu, due to partial irrigation.
• Low Yield: Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka.

Rapeseed and Mustard

1. Varieties of Rapeseed and Mustard

• Includes: Rai, sarson, toria, and taramira.

• Crop Type: Subtropical crops grown primarily during the rabi season.

2. Cultivation Regions

• Geographic Focus: Cultivated in the north-western and central parts of India.

3. Cultivation Characteristics

• Sensitivity to Frost: These crops are frost-sensitive, leading to fluctuating yields.

• Yield Improvement Factors: Expansion of irrigation and improved seed technology have enhanced and stabilized yields.

• Irrigation Proportion: About two-thirds of the area under these crops is irrigated.

4. Area and Production

• Cultivation Area: Occupies about 2.5% of the total cropped area in India.

• Major Producers:
• Rajasthan: Contributes about one-third of the production.
• Other Key States: Haryana and Madhya Pradesh.

• Yield Performance:
• High Yields: Notably in Haryana and Rajasthan.

Other Oilseeds

1. Soyabean Cultivation

• Primary States: Predominantly grown in Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra.

• Production Share: These two states contribute about 90% of India's total soybean output.

2. Sunflower Cultivation

• Key Regions: Concentrated in Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, and adjoining areas of Maharashtra.

• Cultivation in Northern India: A minor crop in the north with high yields due to irrigation.

Fiber Crops

1. Importance of Fibre Crops

• Usage: Provide fiber for making cloth, bags, sacks, and various other items.

2. Main Fibre Crops in India

• Cotton: A key crop for the textile industry.

• Jute: Known for its utility in making sacks and other items.

Cotton

1. Overview of Cotton Cultivation

• Crop Type: A tropical crop grown in the kharif season.

• Geographic Spread: Thrives in semi-arid areas of India.

• Varieties: Includes both short-staple (Indian) and long-staple (American) cotton.

2. Climatic Requirements

• Clear Sky: Essential during the flowering stage for optimal growth.

3. India's Position in Global Production

• Global Rank: India ranks second after China in cotton production.

4. Area and Production

• Cultivation Area: Occupies about 4.7% of the total cropped area in India.

• Cotton Growing Regions:
• North-West: Parts of Punjab, Haryana, and northern Rajasthan.
• West: Gujarat and Maharashtra.
• South: Plateaus of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, and Tamil Nadu.

• Leading States: Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Telangana.

5. Yield Variations

• High Yield: Under irrigated conditions in the north-western region.

• Low Yield: In Maharashtra, where it is grown under rainfed conditions.

Jute

1. Uses of Jute

• Applications: Used for making coarse cloth, bags, sacks, and decorative items.

2. Jute as a Cash Crop

• Geographical Concentration: Primarily a cash crop in West Bengal and the eastern parts of India.

3. Historical Context

• Partition Impact: India lost major jute-growing areas to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) during partition.

4. India's Contribution to Global Production

• Global Share: Produces about three-fifths of the world's jute production.

5. Leading Producer States in India

• West Bengal: Accounts for approximately three-fourths of India's jute production.

• Other Jute-Growing Areas: Bihar and Assam.

6. Cultivation Area

• Proportion of Cropped Area: Jute cultivation covers only about 0.5% of the total cropped area in India.

Other Crops

Sugarcane

1. Climatic Conditions for Sugarcane

• Tropical Crop: Thrives in tropical areas.

• Rainfed and Irrigated: Grown in sub-humid and humid climates under rainfed conditions, but predominantly an irrigated crop in India.

2. Geographical Distribution in India

• Indo-Gangetic Plain: Concentrated in Uttar Pradesh.

• Western India: Spread over Maharashtra and Gujarat.

• Southern India: Cultivated in irrigated areas of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.

3. India's Global Position in Production

• Ranking: Second largest producer after Brazil as of 2018.

• World Production Share: Accounts for about 19.7% of global sugarcane production.

4. Area and Production in India

• Cultivation Area: Occupies only 2.4% of the total cropped area in the country.

• Leading Producer: Uttar Pradesh, contributing about two-fifths of the country's sugarcane.

• Other Key Producers: Maharashtra, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh.

• Yield Variations:
• High Yield: Southern states.
• Low Yield: Northern India.

Tea

1. Introduction to Tea

• Usage: Plantation crop used for making beverages.

• Types of Tea: Black tea (fermented) and green tea (unfermented).

• Content: Rich in caffeine and tannin.

• Origin: Indigenous to northern China.

2. Cultivation Conditions

• Topography: Grown in hilly areas with undulating terrain.

• Climate: Requires humid and sub-humid tropics and subtropics.

• Soil: Prefers well-drained soils.

3. History and Regions of Cultivation in India

• Initiation: Started in the 1840s in the Brahmaputra valley of Assam.

• Expansion: Extended to sub-Himalayan West Bengal and Western Ghats (Nilgiri and Cardamom hills).

• Major Areas: Assam, West Bengal (Darjeeling, Jalpaiguri, Cooch Behar), and parts of Tamil Nadu.

4. India's Global Position

• Production Share: Accounts for about 21.22% of the total global tea production (as of 2018).

• Export Ranking: Second in tea exporting after China (as of 2018).

5. Production in India

• Assam's Contribution:
• Majority of the cropped area.
• Over half of India's tea production.

• Other Key Producers: West Bengal and Tamil Nadu.

Coffee

1. Introduction to Coffee

• Plantation Crop: Coffee is a tropical plantation crop.

• Use: Seeds are roasted and ground for making a beverage.

2. Varieties of Coffee

• Types: Arabica, Robusta, and Liberica.

• Indian Specialty: India mostly grows Arabica, a superior quality variety.

3. Global Production Standings

• World Production Share: India produces about 3.17% of the world's coffee (as of 2018).

• Ranking: Eighth in the world after Brazil, Vietnam, Indonesia, Colombia, Honduras, Ethiopia, and Peru.

4. Cultivation Regions in India

• Geographical Focus: Grown in the highlands of the Western Ghats.

• States: Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.

• Karnataka's Contribution: Accounts for over two-thirds of India's total coffee production.

Table 1

Table 2

Map 1

Map 2

Map 3

Map 4

Agricultural Development in India

1. Pre-Independence Scenario
• Subsistence agriculture.
• Severe droughts and famines.

2. Post-Independence Changes
• Shift from cash crops to food crops.
• Intensified cropping on cultivated land.
• Increased cultivation on fallow land.

3. Challenges in the 1950s
• Stagnation in agricultural production.
• Introduction of Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP) and Intensive Agricultural Area Programme (IAAP).
• Mid-1960s droughts led to food crises and food grain imports.

4. Green Revolution (1960s)
• Introduction of High Yielding Varieties (HYVs) of wheat and rice.
• Focused on irrigated areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh, etc.
• Significant boost in foodgrain production.
• Led to growth in agro-inputs, agro-processing industries, and small-scale industries.
• Initially caused regional disparities in agricultural development.

5. 1980s Focus
• Attention to agriculture in rainfed areas.
• Introduction of agro-climatic planning.
• Emphasis on diversification of agriculture.

6. The 1990s and Liberalization
• The policy of liberalization influenced Indian agriculture.
• Shift towards a free-market economy.

Growth of Agricultural Output and Technology

1. Increase in Agricultural Output

• Significant Growth: Notable increase in output over the last 50 years.

• Crops with Impressive Rate: Rice and wheat, along with sugarcane, oilseeds, and cotton.

2. Role of Irrigation

• Enhancement of Output: Expansion of irrigation has been pivotal in increasing agricultural productivity.

• Introduction of Modern Technology: Facilitated the use of high-yielding variety seeds, chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and farm machinery.

• Increase in Irrigated Area: The net irrigated area in the country has expanded.

3. Diffusion of Modern Agricultural Technology

• Rapid Spread: Modern agricultural technology has rapidly diffused across various regions.

• Fertilizer Consumption: A 15-fold increase in the use of chemical fertilizers since the mid-1960s.

• Pesticide Usage: Significant increase due to the susceptibility of high-yielding varieties to pests and diseases.

Map 1

Problems of Indian Agriculture

1. Nature of Agricultural Problems in India

• Varied Problems: Issues vary based on the agroecological and historical contexts of different regions.

• Region-Specific Challenges: Many agricultural problems are specific to certain regions.

2. Common Agricultural Problems

• Physical Constraints: Include issues like soil degradation, water scarcity, and climatic adversities.

• Institutional Hindrances: Comprise challenges related to land ownership, agricultural marketing, and access to technology and finance.

Dependence on Erratic Monsoon

1. Irrigation Coverage

• Limited Reach: Only about 33% of the cultivated area in India is covered by irrigation.

2. Dependence on Rainfall

• Rainfed Agriculture: The majority of the cultivated land relies directly on rain.

• Impact of Monsoon Failure: Poor performance of the southwest monsoon affects both rainfed agriculture and the supply of canal water for irrigation.

3. Regional Rainfall Variability

• Drought-Prone Areas: Regions like Rajasthan receive meager and unreliable rainfall.

• High Rainfall Areas: Even areas with high annual rainfall face significant fluctuations, leading to vulnerability to droughts and floods.

4. Droughts and Floods

• Common Phenomena: Frequent occurrence of droughts in low rainfall areas, which may also experience occasional floods.

• Examples: Flash floods in drylands of Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Rajasthan in 2006 and 2017.

• Twin Menace: Droughts and floods continue to pose significant challenges to Indian agriculture.

Low productivity

1. Comparison with International Yield Levels

• Low Crop Yield: India's per hectare output for crops like rice, wheat, cotton, and oilseeds is significantly lower than that of countries like the U.S.A., Russia, and Japan.

2. Labour Productivity Issues

• High Pressure on Land: The intense pressure on land resources leads to low labour productivity in Indian agriculture compared to international standards.

3. Productivity in Rainfed Areas

• Impact on Drylands: Particularly in drylands, which mostly cultivate coarse cereals, pulses, and oilseeds, the yield is low.

Constraints of Financial Resources and Indebtedness

1. Cost of Modern Agricultural Inputs

• High Expenses: Inputs required for modern agriculture, such as fertilizers, pesticides, and machinery, are costly.

2. Impact on Marginal and Small Farmers

• Financial Burden: Marginal and small farmers struggle with the high costs due to limited or no savings.

• Lack of Investment Capability: These farmers often lack the financial resources to invest in agricultural activities.

3. Dependence on Credit

• Borrowing for Input Costs: To manage expenses, many small farmers resort to taking loans from various financial institutions and moneylenders.

4. Indebtedness Problem

• Cycle of Debt: Frequent crop failures and low returns lead to a continuous cycle of indebtedness among farmers.

Lack of Land Reforms

1. Historical Context of Land Distribution

• Peasant Exploitation: Unequal distribution of land historically exploited the Indian peasantry.

• Revenue Systems Under British Rule: Mahalwari, Ryotwari, and Zamindari, with Zamindari being the most exploitative.

2. Post-Independence Land Reforms

• Initial Priority: Land reforms were a priority post-Independence.

• Ineffective Implementation: However, these reforms were not effectively implemented.

3. Political Challenges in Implementation

• Lack of Political Will: State governments avoided tough decisions that opposed powerful landlord lobbies.

• Impact of Political Lobbying: Influential political groups hindered the land reform process.

4. Consequences of Inadequate Reforms

• Continued Inequality: Persistent inequitable distribution of cultivable land.

• Impediment to Agricultural Development: This inequality is detrimental to the growth and development of agriculture.

Small Farm Size and Fragmentation of Landholdings

. Prevalence of Marginal and Small Farmers

• Large Numbers: A significant portion of farmers in India are marginal and small-scale farmers.

2. Shrinking Land Holdings

• Decreasing Average Size: The average size of landholdings is diminishing due to increasing population pressure.

3. Fragmentation of Landholdings

• Widespread Issue: Landholdings in India are mostly fragmented.

• Lack of Consolidation: Several states have not conducted land consolidation, leading to further fragmentation.

4. Need for Second Consolidation

• Re-fragmentation Over Generations: Even in states where consolidation occurred, landholdings have fragmented again due to inheritance and division among next generations.

5. Economic Impact

• Uneconomic Holdings: Small, fragmented landholdings are often uneconomical for agricultural production.

Lack of Commercialization

1. Subsistence Farming Prevalence

• Self-Consumption Focus: Many farmers in India primarily produce crops for their own consumption.

2. Land Resource Constraints

• Limited Land Holdings: These farmers often do not possess sufficient land to produce beyond their personal needs.

3. Crop Choices of Small and Marginal Farmers

• Foodgrain Production: Most small and marginal farmers cultivate foodgrains intended for family consumption.

4. Modernisation and Commercialisation Trends

• Regional Variations: While modernisation and commercialisation are more evident in irrigated areas, they are less pronounced in rainfed and smaller land holdings.

Vast Underemployment

1. Underemployment in Agriculture

• Widespread Issue: A significant problem in the agricultural sector, especially in unirrigated areas.

2. Seasonal Unemployment

• Duration: Ranges from 4 to 8 months in unirrigated tracts.

• Periodicity: Most pronounced outside the cropping season.

3. Employment During Cropping Season

• Limited Work Availability: Even during the cropping season, continuous work is not available.

• Nature of Agricultural Operations: Many agricultural tasks are not labor-intensive.

4. Lack of Year-Round Employment

• Limited Opportunities: People engaged in agriculture often cannot find work throughout the year.

Degradation of Cultivable Land

1. Land Degradation from Irrigation and Agricultural Practices

• Significant Issue: Land resources degradation due to faulty irrigation and agricultural strategies.

2. Impact on Soil Fertility

• Fertility Depletion: Alarming situations, particularly in irrigated areas, with soil fertility being compromised.

3. Causes of Degradation

• Alkalisation and Salinisation: Resulting in loss of fertility in large tracts of agricultural land.

• Waterlogging: Further exacerbates soil degradation.

• Excessive Use of Chemicals: Insecticides and pesticides leading to toxic concentrations in the soil.

• Displacement of Leguminous Crops: Affecting natural fertilization processes like nitrogen fixation.

• Reduced Fallow Duration: Due to multiple cropping, affecting soil rejuvenation.

4. Soil Erosion in Rainfed Areas

• Erosion Types: Includes both water and wind erosion, often induced by human activities.

• Regions Affected: Humid and semi-arid tropics.

Additional Concepts

National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA)

1. Objective:
• To enhance agricultural productivity while ensuring sustainability, profitability, and climate resilience.

2. Approach:
• Promoting location-specific integrated/composite farming systems.
• Conserving natural resources via soil and moisture conservation measures.

3. Government Initiatives:
• Promotion of organic farming through schemes like Paramparagat Krishi Vikas Yojana (PKVY) and Rashtriya Vikas Yojana (RKVY).

Farmer’s Portal of India

1. Purpose:
• A platform for farmers to access comprehensive information related to agriculture.

2. Information Provided:
• Includes details on insurance, storage, crops, extension activities, seeds, pesticides, farm machinery, fertilizers, market prices, packages, practices, programs, and welfare schemes.

3. Additional Features:
• Block-level information available in an interactive map format.
• Downloadable resources like farm-friendly handbooks and scheme guidelines.

Chapter 4 - Water Resources

Introduction

Water Resources: Introduction

1. Future Predictions
• Demographic Transition: Changes in population structure.
• Geographical Shift: Movement of population.
• Technological Advancement: Progress in technology.
• Environmental Degradation: Harm to the environment.
• Water Scarcity: Greatest challenge due to increased demand and reduced supplies.

2. Water: A Cyclic Resource
• Covers 71% of Earth's surface.
• Only 3% is freshwater.
• Minimal proportion of freshwater is available for human use.

3. Availability of Freshwater
• Varies across time and space.
• Tensions and disputes arise over sharing and control.

4. Necessity
• Assessment of water resources.
• Efficient utilization.
• Conservation and management to ensure development.

5. Chapter Overview
• Discussion on water resources in India.
• Geographical distribution.
• Sectoral utilization.
• Conservation and management methods.

Water Resources of India

1. India's Share in Global Context

• Surface Area: About 2.45% of the world's surface area.

• Water Resources: Holds 4% of the world's water resources.

• Population: Houses approximately 16% of the world's population.

2. Annual Precipitation and Water Availability

• Total Water from Precipitation: Approximately 4,000 cubic kilometers annually.

• Surface Water and Groundwater: Availability from these sources is about 1,869 cubic kilometers.

3. Utilisable Water Resources

• Beneficial Use Proportion: Only 60% of the available water can be effectively utilized.

• Total Utilisable Water: Hence, the total utilisable water resource in India amounts to 1,122 cubic kilometers.

Surface Water Resources

1. Major Sources of Surface Water

• Types: Rivers, lakes, ponds, and tanks.

• River Network: About 10,360 rivers and tributaries longer than 1.6 km each.

2. Annual Flow and Utilization

• Mean Annual Flow: Total flow in all river basins estimated at 1,869 cubic km.

• Utilizable Surface Water: Only about 690 cubic km (32%) of surface water can be utilized due to various constraints.

3. River Flow Dependency

• Factors: Depends on the size of the catchment area and rainfall within it.

• Spatial Variation: Rainfall in India varies spatially and is mostly concentrated in the monsoon season.

4. Distribution of Water Resources

• Large Catchment Rivers: The Ganga, Brahmaputra, and the Indus have vast catchment areas.

• Concentration of Resources: These rivers account for 60% of total surface water resources, despite covering only one-third of the total area.

• Harnessing Status: South Indian rivers like the Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri are largely harnessed, while it is pending for the Brahmaputra and the Ganga basins.

Groundwater Resources

1. Total Replenishable Groundwater Resources

• Availability: Approximately 432 cubic kilometers in India.

2. Utilization of Groundwater

• High Utilization Areas: North-western regions and parts of South India.

• States with Very High Utilization: Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu.

3. Variations in Groundwater Utilization

• Low Utilization States: Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Kerala utilize a small portion of their groundwater potential.

• Moderate Utilization States: Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Tripura, and Maharashtra.

4. Concerns and Future Challenges

• Demand-Supply Mismatch: If current trends continue, water demands may surpass supplies.

• Potential Consequences: This imbalance could hinder development and lead to social upheaval and disruptions.

Lagoons and Backwaters

1. Coastal Features and Formation

• Vast Coastline: India has an extensive coastline leading to the formation of numerous lagoons and lakes.

• Indented Coast: Some states have a particularly indented coast, contributing to these formations.

2. States with Significant Lagoons and Lakes

• Key Regions: Kerala, Odisha, and West Bengal are notable for their vast surface water resources in lagoons and lakes.

3. Utilization of Lagoon and Lake Water

• Water Quality: Generally brackish in these water bodies.

• Uses: Employed for fishing and irrigating certain crops like paddy, coconut, etc.

Water Demand and Utilization

1. Agricultural Priority in Water Demand

• Agrarian Economy: Agriculture has been a central part of India's economy and a primary livelihood for two-thirds of the population.

• Irrigation Development: High priority given to irrigation in Five Year Plans and through multipurpose river valley projects (e.g., Bhakra-Nangal, Hirakud, Damodar Valley, Nagarjuna Sagar, Indira Gandhi Canal Project).

2. Water Utilization by Agriculture

• Dominant Consumer: Agriculture is the major consumer of both surface and groundwater.

• Utilization Statistics: Accounts for 89% of surface water and 92% of groundwater utilization.

3. Industrial and Domestic Water Use

• Industrial Sector: Uses 2% of surface water and 5% of groundwater.

• Domestic Sector: Has a higher share in surface water utilization (9%) compared to groundwater.

4. Future Trends

• Increasing Demand in Other Sectors: With development, the shares of industrial and domestic sectors in water utilization are expected to increase.

Demand for Water for Irrigation

1. Necessity of Irrigation in Agriculture

• Variability in Rainfall: Due to spatio-temporal variations in rainfall, large areas of the country, particularly the north-western regions and the Deccan plateau, are drought-prone and deficient in rainfall.

2. Irrigation During Dry Seasons

• Dry Season Agriculture: In most parts of the country, winter and summer seasons require irrigation for effective agricultural practices.

• Irrigation in High Rainfall Areas: Even in regions with ample rainfall like West Bengal and Bihar, irrigation is necessary to mitigate breaks or failures in monsoon.

3. Crops with High Water Demand

• Specific Crop Needs: Crops like rice, sugarcane, and jute have high water requirements, necessitating irrigation.

4. Benefits of Irrigation

• Multiple Cropping: Facilitates multiple cropping and increases agricultural productivity.

• High Yielding Varieties: Essential for the success of high yielding crop varieties.

• Green Revolution Impact: Key to the success of the Green Revolution strategy in states like Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh.

5. Irrigation and Groundwater Utilization

• High Irrigation Coverage: States like Punjab, Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh have over 85% of their net sown area under irrigation.

• Groundwater Depletion: Extensive use of wells and tubewells has led to groundwater depletion in these states.

6. Adverse Effects of Overuse

• Decline in Groundwater Table: Overuse has caused a decrease in groundwater levels.

• Water Quality Issues: Over-extraction in states like Rajasthan and Maharashtra has led to increased fluoride, and in West Bengal and Bihar, arsenic concentration in groundwater.

Emerging Water Problems

1. Declining Per Capita Water Availability

• Population Impact: The per capita availability of water is decreasing due to the rising population.

2. Pollution of Water Resources

• Sources of Pollution: Water resources are being contaminated by industrial, agricultural, and domestic effluents.

• Impact on Usability: This pollution is reducing the availability of usable water.

Map

Deterioration of Water Quality

1. Definition of Water Quality

• Purity Aspect: Water quality pertains to the purity of water, free from unwanted foreign substances.

2. Causes of Water Pollution

• Pollutants: Includes micro-organisms, chemicals, industrial wastes, and other foreign matters.

• Effects on Water Bodies: These pollutants dissolve or remain suspended in water bodies, leading to pollution and deterioration of water quality.

3. Impact on Aquatic Systems

• Quality Deterioration: Polluted water adversely affects aquatic ecosystems.

4. Pollution of Groundwater

• Seepage of Pollutants: Pollutants can seep down and contaminate the groundwater.

5. Notable Polluted Rivers

• Ganga and Yamuna: These are among the most polluted rivers in India.

Water Conservation and Management

1. Need for Water Conservation and Management

• Declining Freshwater Availability: With decreasing availability and increasing demand, there's an urgent need for conservation.

• Sustainable Development Goal: Ensuring the sustainable management of water resources.

2. Constraints on Sea/Ocean Water Use

• Desalinization Cost: High cost makes desalinization a less viable option for augmenting water supply.

3. Policy and Legal Measures

• Urgency for Effective Policies: India needs to implement effective policies and laws for water conservation.

4. Conservation Techniques and Methods

• Water-Saving Technologies: Developing technologies that reduce water consumption.

• Preventing Pollution: Efforts to minimize water pollution.

• Watershed Development: Encouraging practices that support watershed health.

• Rainwater Harvesting: Promoting the collection and use of rainwater.

• Water Recycling and Reuse: Implementing systems for recycling and reusing water.

• Conjunctive Use of Water: Using a combination of surface and groundwater resources sustainably.

Prevention of Water Pollution

1. Degradation of Water Resources

• Rapid Deterioration: Water resources in India are facing rapid degradation.

2. Variation in River Water Quality

• Upper Stretches: Better water quality in less populated, hilly areas.

• Plains: Intensive use for irrigation, drinking, domestic and industrial purposes leads to pollution.

3. Sources of River Pollution

• Agricultural Effluents: Fertilizers and insecticides.

• Domestic Waste: Solid and liquid wastes.

• Industrial Effluents: Discharged into rivers, increasing pollution.

4. Pollution Control Monitoring

• CPCB Monitoring: Central Pollution Control Board, along with State Boards, monitors water quality at 507 stations.

• Main Pollutants: Organic and bacterial contamination.

• Severely Polluted Rivers: Yamuna (Delhi to Etawah), Sabarmati (Ahmedabad), Gomti (Lucknow), Ganga (Kanpur and Varanasi), and others.

5. Groundwater Pollution

• Pollutants: Heavy/toxic metals, fluoride, and nitrates in various parts of India.

6. Legislative Measures and Effectiveness

• Existing Laws: Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974, Environment Protection Act 1986.

• Implementation Issues: Ineffective implementation with continued industrial pollution.

• Water Cess Act 1977: Aimed to reduce pollution but had marginal impact.

7. Need for Public Awareness

• Awareness Importance: Generating public awareness can effectively reduce pollutants from agricultural, domestic, and industrial sources.

Recycle and Reuse of Water

1. Improving Fresh Water Availability

• Strategy: Through recycling and reusing water.

2. Reuse of Water in Industries

• Alternative Water Sources: Using reclaimed wastewater for non-consumptive purposes like cooling and fire fighting.

• Cost Reduction: Helps industries reduce their water expenses.

3. Urban Water Reuse

• Domestic Applications: Water from bathing and washing utensils can be used for gardening.

• Vehicle Washing Water: Reusing water from vehicle washing for gardening.

• Conserving Drinking Water: Helps conserve higher quality water for drinking purposes.

4. Current Status of Water Recycling

• Limited Practice: Recycling of water is currently practised on a limited scale in India.

5. Scope for Water Replenishment

• Potential for Expansion: There is significant potential to replenish water resources through recycling.

Map

Watershed Management

1. Definition and Significance
• Efficient conservation of surface and groundwater resources.
• Involves prevention of runoff and storage & recharge of groundwater.
• Broadly includes conservation, regeneration, and judicious use of all resources within a watershed.

2. Aims of Watershed Management
• Achieve balance between natural resources and society.
• Community participation crucial for success.

3. Initiatives and Programs
• Central and State Governments:
• Haryali Project: By Central Government for conserving water for various purposes. Executed by Gram Panchayats with community involvement.
• Non-Governmental Organizations:
• Neeru-Meeru (Andhra Pradesh) & Arvary Pani Sansad (Alwar, Rajasthan): Focus on constructing water-harvesting structures.
• State-Specific Initiatives:
• Tamil Nadu: Mandatory water harvesting structures for all buildings.

4. Current Status and Future Needs
• Success in rejuvenating environment and economy in some areas.
• Majority of programs still in early stages.
• Need for increased awareness and benefits of watershed management.
• Integrated water resource management approach essential for sustainable water availability.

Rainwater Harvesting

1. Definition and Benefits
• Capturing and storing rainwater for various uses.
• Benefits:
• Increases water availability.
• Recharges groundwater.
• Improves groundwater quality.
• Prevents soil erosion, flooding.
• Arrests saltwater intrusion in coastal areas.

2. Traditional Practices
• Surface storage bodies: lakes, ponds, irrigation tanks.
• Rajasthan:
• Kund or Tanka: Covered underground tanks for rainwater storage.

3. Modern Approaches
• Harvesting rainwater on rooftops and open spaces.
• Reduces dependence on groundwater.
• Saves energy as groundwater table rises.
• Urban areas:
• Benefits from rainwater harvesting due to increasing water demand.

4. Other Solutions for Water Problem
• Desalinization: Especially in coastal areas.
• Transfer of water: From surplus to deficit areas via inter-linking of rivers.
• Pricing of Water:
• Crucial from the perspective of individual users, households, and communities.

Additional Concepts

Watershed Development in Ralegan Siddhi

1. Overview
• Location: Ahmadnagar, Maharashtra.
• Transformation from poverty and illicit liquor trade in 1975 to a model village.

2. Key Initiatives
• Initiated by a retired army personnel.
• Promoted:
• Voluntary labor.
• Prohibition of open grazing and felling trees.
• Liquor prohibition.
• Family planning.
• Community involvement: Everyone, including non-residents, contributed to the development.
• Tarun Mandal: Youth group formed to promote social reforms.
• Focus on sustainable agriculture: Discouraging water-intensive crops.
• Emphasis on consensus in local body elections.
• Schools built using village resources.
• Shared labor system for agricultural operations.

3. Current Status
• Adequate water, flourishing agriculture.
• High use of fertilizers and pesticides.
• Village's future evolution predicted to adapt to changing times.

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India’s National Water Policy, 2002

1. Water Allocation Priorities
• Order: Drinking water, irrigation, hydro-power, navigation, industrial, and other uses.

2. Key Features
• Inclusion of drinking water in irrigation and multi-purpose projects.
• Priority to providing drinking water to all.
• Regulation of groundwater exploitation.
• Regular quality monitoring of water sources.
• Promote water use efficiency.
• Fostering water awareness.
• Conservation through education, regulation, incentives, and disincentives.

---

Jal Kranti Abhiyan (2015-16)

1. Background
• Aim: Ensure water security through per capita water availability.
• Addresses climate change effects, population growth, and rapid economic development.

2. Key Objectives and Activities
• Create 'Jal Gram' in water-stressed villages across 672 districts.
• Identify model command areas across the country.
• Pollution abatement strategies:
• Water conservation and artificial recharge.
• Reduce groundwater pollution.
• Construction of Arsenic-free wells.
• Mass awareness campaigns: Social media, radio, TV, print media, schools.
• Goal: Livelihood and food security through water security.

Chapter 5 - Mineral and Energy Resources

Introduction

Mineral and Energy Resources

1. Introduction
• India possesses a diverse range of mineral resources.
• These resources play a foundational role in facilitating industrial development.

2. Geological Diversity and Mineral Wealth
• India's geological structure is varied, leading to diverse mineral resources.
• Majority of valuable minerals originate from the pre-palaezoic age.
• Reference: Chapter 2 of Class XI, Textbook: "Fundamentals of Physical Geography".
• Such minerals are primarily found in:
• Metamorphic rocks.
• Igneous rocks.
• Located mainly in peninsular India.

3. Areas Devoid of Significant Mineral Resources
• The vast alluvial plains of north India lack minerals of economic significance.

4. Significance of Mineral Resources
• They provide a foundation for industrial growth and development in the country.

Types of Mineral Resources

1. Classification Based on Chemical and Physical Properties
• Two main categories:
• Metallics
• Non-metallics

2. Metallic Minerals
• Source of metals.
• Examples: Iron ore, copper, gold.
• Further sub-categories:
• Ferrous Metallic Minerals: Contain iron.
• Example: Iron ore.
• Non-Ferrous Metallic Minerals: Do not contain iron.
• Examples: Copper, bauxite.

3. Non-Metallic Minerals
• Two types based on origin:
• Organic Origin (Mineral Fuels): Derived from buried animal and plant life.
• Examples: Coal, petroleum.
• Inorganic Origin:
• Examples: Mica, limestone, graphite.

4. Characteristics of Minerals
• Distribution: Unevenly dispersed geographically.
• Quality vs. Quantity: High-quality minerals are rarer compared to lower-quality ones.
• Exhaustibility: Minerals are non-renewable. They take a long time to form geologically and cannot be quickly replenished. Conservation is vital.

Flow chart

Distribution of Minerals in India

1. Location of Metallic Minerals

• Concentration: Primarily found in the peninsular plateau region within old crystalline rocks.

2. Coal Reserves

• Major Reserves: Over 97% of coal reserves in the valleys of Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi, and Godavari.

3. Petroleum Reserves

• Primary Locations: In the sedimentary basins of Assam, Gujarat, and Mumbai High (offshore in the Arabian Sea).

• New Discoveries: Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins.

4. Geographical Extent of Mineral Resources

• Concentration Line: Most major mineral resources are east of a line linking Mangaluru and Kanpur.

5. Mineral Belts in India

• Broad Concentration Zones: Minerals in India are concentrated in three broad belts with some sporadic occurrences in isolated pockets.

The North-Eastern Plateau Region

1. Geographic Coverage

• Region Encompassed: Includes Chhotanagpur (Jharkhand), Odisha Plateau, parts of West Bengal, and Chhattisgarh.

2. Significance in Iron and Steel Industry

• Industrial Location: The presence of various minerals is a key reason for the major iron and steel industries in this region.

3. Variety of Minerals

• Iron Ore: Essential for steel manufacturing.

• Coal: Crucial for energy and industrial processes.

• Manganese: Used in steel production and other industrial applications.

• Bauxite: Raw material for aluminum production.

• Mica: Used in electronics and various industries.

The South-Western Plateau Region

1. Geographic Scope

• Region Covered: Spans across Karnataka, Goa, Tamil Nadu uplands, and Kerala.

2. Richness in Metals and Minerals

• Ferrous Metals and Bauxite: The region is rich in these minerals.

• Other Minerals Present:
• High-grade Iron Ore: Crucial for steel production.
• Manganese: Used in steel production and other applications.
• Limestone: Essential for cement and various other industries.

• Coal Deposits: Limited, with the exception of Neyveli lignite in Tamil Nadu.

3. Comparison with North-Eastern Belt

• Less Diversity: Does not have as varied mineral deposits as the north-eastern region.

4. Specific State Deposits

• Kerala: Contains monazite, thorium, bauxite clay.

• Goa: Known for its iron ore deposits.

The North-Western Region

1. Geographic Extension

• Region Covered: Extends along the Aravali range in Rajasthan and parts of Gujarat.

2. Mineral Associations

• Rock System: Minerals associated with the Dharwar system of rocks.

• Key Minerals: Copper and zinc are the major minerals found in this region.

3. Rajasthan's Mineral Wealth

• Building Stones: Rich in sandstone, granite, and marble.

• Other Minerals: Extensive deposits of gypsum and Fuller’s earth.

• Cement Industry Raw Materials: Abundant in dolomite and limestone.

4. Gujarat's Mineral Resources

• Petroleum Deposits: Known for substantial petroleum resources.

• Salt Sources: Both Gujarat and Rajasthan have rich salt sources.

5. Himalayan Mineral Belt

• Metallic Minerals: Copper, lead, zinc, cobalt, and tungsten in eastern and western parts.

6. Petroleum Deposits

• Assam Valley: Contains mineral oil deposits.

• Offshore Resources: Near Mumbai Coast (Mumbai High).

7. Spatial Pattern of Minerals

• Upcoming Sections: Provide detailed spatial patterns of important minerals.

Ferrous Mineral

1. Types of Ferrous Minerals

• Key Minerals: Include iron ore, manganese, chromite, etc.

2. Importance in Metallurgical Industries

• Industrial Foundation: These minerals provide a strong base for the development of metallurgical industries.

3. India's Position

• Reserves and Production: India is well-placed in terms of both reserves and production of ferrous minerals.

Iron Ore

1. Abundance of Iron Ore in India

• Reserve Status: India possesses the largest reserve of iron ore in Asia.

• Types of Ore: Mainly haematite and magnetite.

2. International Demand

• Quality: Indian iron ore is in demand internationally due to its superior quality.

3. Geographical Advantages

• Proximity to Coal Fields: Iron ore mines are often located near coal fields, especially in the northeastern plateau, adding to logistical advantages.

4. Major States with Iron Ore Reserves

• Principal States: Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka, Goa, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu.

5. Key Mining Areas

• Odisha: Sundergarh, Mayurbhanj, and Jharsuguda districts.

• Jharkhand: Singhbhum district with mines like Noamundi and Gua.

• Chhattisgarh: Durg district, including Dalli and Rajhara mines.

• Karnataka: Sandur-Hospet area of Ballari district, Baba Budan hills, Kudremukh.

• Other Regions: Maharashtra (Chandrapur, Bhandara, Ratnagiri), Telangana (Karimnagar, Warangal), Andhra Pradesh (Kurnool, Cuddapah, Anantapur), Tamil Nadu (Salem, Nilgiris), and Goa.

Manganese

1. Importance of Manganese

• Industrial Use: Vital for smelting iron ore and manufacturing ferro alloys.

2. Geology and Distribution

• Geological Association: Mainly associated with the Dharwar system.

• Widespread Occurrence: Found in almost all geological formations.

3. Leading Producers and Mining Areas

• Odisha: Major producer with mines in Bonai, Kendujhar, Sundergarh, Gangpur, Koraput, Kalahandi, and Bolangir.

• Karnataka: Significant production in Dharwar, Ballari, Belagavi, North Canara, Chikkmagaluru, Shivamogga, Chitradurg, and Tumakuru.

• Maharashtra: Notable producer with mines in Nagpur, Bhandara, and Ratnagiri. However, these are located far from steel plants.

4. Other Producers

• Madhya Pradesh: Manganese belt extends in Balaghat-Chhindwara-Nimar-Mandla, and Jhabua districts.

• Minor Producers: Telangana, Goa, and Jharkhand.

Non-Ferrous Minerals

1. India's Non-Ferrous Mineral Resources

• General Scenario: India has limited non-ferrous metallic minerals except for bauxite.

Bauxite

1. Significance of Bauxite
• Industrial Use: Primary ore used in the manufacturing of aluminum.
• Geological Association: Mainly found in tertiary deposits, associated with laterite rocks.

2. Major Producing Regions
• Largest Producer: Odisha, with significant production in Kalahandi, Sambalpur, Bolangir, and Koraput.
• Jharkhand: Rich deposits in the Lohardaga region.
• Other Major Producers: Gujarat (Bhavnagar, Jamnagar), Chhattisgarh (Amarkantak plateau), Madhya Pradesh (Katni-Jabalpur, Balaghat), Maharashtra (Kolaba, Thane, Ratnagiri, Satara, Pune, Kolhapur).

3. Minor Producers
• Other States: Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Goa.

Copper

1. Importance of Copper

• Industrial Use: Essential in the electrical industry for wires, motors, transformers, and generators.

• Properties: Alloyable, malleable, ductile, and used in strengthening gold for jewelry.

2. Major Copper Deposits

• Key Locations:
• Singhbhum district in Jharkhand.
• Balaghat district in Madhya Pradesh.
• Jhunjhunu and Alwar districts in Rajasthan.

3. Minor Copper Producing Regions

• Other Areas:
• Agnigundala in Guntur District (Andhra Pradesh).
• Chitradurg and Hasan districts (Karnataka).
• South Arcot district (Tamil Nadu).

Map

Non-Metallic Minerals

1. Importance of Non-metallic Minerals in India

• Primary Non-metallic Mineral: Mica is a significant non-metallic mineral produced in India.

2. Other Non-metallic Minerals

• For Local Consumption:
• Limestone: Widely used in construction, cement manufacturing, and various other industrial uses.
• Dolomite: Used in iron and steel industry, and as a soil conditioner.
• Phosphate: Essential for agricultural fertilizers.

Mica

1. Usage of Mica

• Industry Application: Primarily used in the electrical and electronic industries due to its insulating properties.

2. Characteristics of Mica

• Physical Properties: Can be split into very thin, tough, and flexible sheets.

3. Major Producing States

• Jharkhand: High-quality mica in lower Hazaribagh plateau, over a belt of about 150 km in length and 22 km in width.

• Andhra Pradesh: Notably in Nellore district, known for the best quality mica.

• Rajasthan: Mica belt extends approximately 320 km from Jaipur to Bhilwara and around Udaipur.

• Other States: Tamil Nadu (Coimbatore, Tiruchirapalli, Madurai, Kanniyakumari), Karnataka (Mysuru, Hasan), Kerala (Alleppey), Maharashtra (Ratnagiri), West Bengal (Purulia, Bankura).

4. Minor Producers

• Telangana: Along with Rajasthan, follows Jharkhand and Andhra Pradesh in mica production.

• Tamil Nadu & West Bengal: Also notable for mica production.

Map

Energy Resources

Conventional Energy Resources

1. Importance of Mineral Fuels

• Use in Power Generation: Essential for generating power needed in agriculture, industry, transport, and other economic sectors.

2. Types of Mineral Fuels

• Coal: A primary source for power generation and industrial processes.

• Petroleum and Natural Gas: Known as fossil fuels, crucial for transportation and energy.

• Nuclear Energy Minerals: Used in nuclear power generation.

3. Characteristics of Conventional Energy Sources

• Nature: These are conventional sources of energy.

• Exhaustibility: These resources are exhaustible, meaning they can be depleted over time.

Coal

1. Significance of Coal

• Primary Uses: Crucial for thermal power generation and smelting of iron ore.

2. Geological Age and Types

• Gondwana and Tertiary Deposits: Coal in India mainly comes from these geological ages.

• Bituminous Type: About 80% of India's coal is non-coking bituminous coal.

3. Major Coal Fields

• Damodar Valley: Key region in the Jharkhand-Bengal coal belt with fields like Raniganj, Jharia, Bokaro, Giridih, Karanpura.

• Jharia: Largest coal field, followed by Raniganj.

• Other River Valleys: Coal associated with Godavari, Mahanadi, and Sone river valleys.

4. Important Mining Centres

• Madhya Pradesh: Singrauli coal field (extends into Uttar Pradesh).

• Chhattisgarh: Korba.

• Odisha: Talcher and Rampur.

• Maharashtra: Chanda-Wardha, Kamptee, Bander.

• Telangana: Singareni.

• Andhra Pradesh: Pandur.

5. Tertiary Coal Deposits

• Locations: Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Nagaland.

• Key Areas: Darangiri, Cherrapunji, Mewlong, Langrin (Meghalaya); Makum, Jaipur, Nazira (Assam); Namchik-Namphuk (Arunachal Pradesh); Kalakot (J&K).

6. Lignite Deposits

• Occurrence: In Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Gujarat, and Jammu and Kashmir.

Petroleum

1. Composition and Uses of Crude Petroleum

• Characteristics: Comprises hydrocarbons in liquid and gaseous states with varying chemical compositions.

• Essential Energy Source: Powers internal combustion engines in automobiles, railways, and aircraft.

• Petrochemical Industry: Provides raw materials for fertilizers, synthetic rubber, synthetic fiber, medicines, vaseline, lubricants, wax, soap, and cosmetics.

2. Geological Occurrence

• Tertiary Period Rocks: Crude petroleum is found in sedimentary rocks from the tertiary period.

3. History of Oil Exploration in India

• Initial Production: Digboi in Assam was the only oil-producing region until 1956.

• Post-1956 Expansion: The establishment of the Oil and Natural Gas Commission in 1956 marked the systematic exploration and production expansion.

4. Major Oil Producing Areas

• Assam: Digboi, Naharkatiya, and Moran.

• Gujarat: Ankleshwar, Kalol, Mehsana, Nawagam, Kosamba, and Lunej.

• Mumbai High: Offshore field discovered in 1973; production started in 1976.

• East Coast: Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins.

5. Crude Oil Refinement

• Refinement Process: Crude oil contains impurities and requires refining before use.

• Types of Refineries:
• Field-Based Refinery: Example, Digboi.
• Market-Based Refinery: Example, Barauni.

Natural Gas

1. Association with Petroleum

• Occurrence: Natural gas is often found with petroleum deposits and is released during the extraction of crude oil.

2. Uses of Natural Gas

• Energy Production: Used as fuel in the power sector for generating electricity.

• Industrial Heating: Utilized for heating purposes in various industries.

• Raw Material: Vital in chemical, petrochemical, and fertilizer industries.

• Transport and Domestic Fuel: Emerging as a preferred fuel for transportation (as CNG) and cooking (as PNG) due to expanding gas infrastructure and city gas distribution networks.

3. Major Gas Reserves in India

• Mumbai High: Significant reserves along the west coast, supplemented by the Cambay basin.

• East Coast Reserves: New discoveries in the Krishna-Godavari basin.

Map

Non-Conventional Energy Sources

1. Contrast with Fossil Fuels

• Fossil Fuels: Coal, petroleum, natural gas, and nuclear energy use exhaustible raw materials.

2. Sustainable Energy Resources

• Renewable Sources: Include solar, wind, hydro-geothermal, and biomass energy.

• Advantages: More equitably distributed and environmentally friendly.

3. Features of Non-Conventional Energy

• Sustained and Eco-Friendly: Provide a more sustainable and environmentally friendly energy solution.

• Cost Effectiveness: Initially high cost, but more economical in the long run.

Nuclear Energy Resources

1. Emergence of Nuclear Energy

• Viability: Nuclear energy has become a significant source in recent times.

2. Key Minerals for Nuclear Energy

• Uranium: Found in Dharwar rocks; locations include Singbhum Copper belt, Udaipur, Alwar and Jhunjhunu in Rajasthan, Durg in Chhattisgarh, Bhandara in Maharashtra, and Kullu in Himachal Pradesh.

• Thorium: Primarily obtained from monazite and ilmenite in beach sands of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Major deposits are in Palakkad and Kollam in Kerala, Vishakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh, and the Mahanadi river delta in Odisha.

3. Development of Nuclear Energy in India

• Atomic Energy Commission: Established in 1948.

• Progress Post-1954: Advanced after setting up the Atomic Energy Institute at Trombay (renamed as Bhabha Atomic Research Centre in 1967).

4. Important Nuclear Power Projects

• Locations:
• Maharashtra: Tarapur.
• Rajasthan: Rawatbhata near Kota.
• Tamil Nadu: Kalpakkam.
• Uttar Pradesh: Narora.
• Karnataka: Kaiga.
• Gujarat: Kakarapara.

Solar Energy

1. Basics of Solar Energy

• Conversion Process: Sun rays are converted into energy using photovoltaic cells.

2. Effective Processes for Tapping Solar Energy

• Photovoltaics: Direct conversion of light into electricity at the atomic level.

• Solar Thermal Technology: Uses sunlight to generate thermal energy which is then used for heating or power generation.

3. Advantages of Solar Energy

• Cost-Effectiveness: Competitively priced compared to other non-renewable energy sources.

• Environment-Friendly: Does not produce harmful emissions.

• Efficiency: 7% more effective than coal or oil-based plants, and 10% more than nuclear plants.

• Ease of Construction: Simple to set up and deploy.

4. Applications of Solar Energy

• Widespread Use: In appliances like heaters, crop dryers, and cookers.

5. Regional Potential in India

• Western India: Gujarat and Rajasthan have a higher potential for solar energy development.

Wind Energy

1. Nature and Benefits of Wind Energy

• Pollution-Free: Wind energy is a clean and inexhaustible energy source.

• Energy Conversion: Converts the kinetic energy of wind into electrical energy using turbines.

2. Types of Wind Systems for Energy

• Permanent Winds: Trade winds and westerlies are utilized for energy.

• Seasonal Winds: Monsoon winds can also be harnessed.

• Local Winds: Land and sea breezes offer additional potential for electricity generation.

3. Wind Energy Generation in India

• Established Regions: Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Karnataka have favorable conditions for wind energy production.

Tidal and Wave Energy

1. Ocean Currents as an Energy Source

• Infinite Energy Source: Ocean currents are a storehouse of endless energy.

2. Historical Efforts

• Development Attempts: Since the 17th and 18th centuries, there have been efforts to harness energy from tidal waves and ocean currents more efficiently.

3. Potential for Tidal Energy in India

• Coastal Advantage: India has significant potential along its west coast.

• Current Status: Despite the potential, tidal energy sources have not yet been extensively utilized in India.

Geothermal Energy

1. Concept of Geothermal Energy

• Heat Source: Originates from magma within Earth's interior. The heat released can be converted to electrical energy.

• Utilization of Hot Water: Water from geysers is also used for generating thermal energy.

2. Advantages and Uses

• Alternate Energy Source: Considered a key source for developing alternative energy solutions.

• Historical Usage: Hot springs and geysers have been utilized since medieval times.

3. Geothermal Energy in India

• Development: India has commissioned a geothermal energy plant at Manikaran in Himachal Pradesh.

Bio-energy

1. Definition of Bio-energy

• Source: Derived from biological products like agricultural residues, municipal, industrial, and other wastes.

2. Potential and Conversion

• Energy Conversion: Can be converted into electrical energy, heat energy, or gas for cooking.

• Waste Processing: Helps in processing waste and garbage to produce energy.

3. Benefits of Bio-energy

• Economic Enhancement: Improves the economic life of rural areas, especially in developing countries.

• Environmental Impact: Reduces environmental pollution.

• Self-reliance: Enhances self-reliance and reduces dependency on fuel wood.

4. Example in India

• Municipal Waste to Energy: The Okhla project in Delhi converts municipal waste into energy.

Map

Conservation of Mineral Resources

1. Sustainable Development
• Integrates economic development and environmental concerns.
• Traditional resource use generates waste and environmental issues.

2. Need for Conservation
• Protect resources for future generations.
Urgent necessity to safeguard resources.

3. Alternative Energy Sources
• Inexhaustible Resources: Solar power, wind, wave, geothermal energy.
• Should be developed to replace finite resources.

4. Metallic Minerals
• Recycling: Use of scrap metals helps in resource conservation.
• Especially significant for metals like copper, lead, zinc (where India's reserves are limited).
• Substitutes: Using alternatives for scarce metals can reduce consumption.

5. Strategic Measures
• Reduce export of strategic and scarce minerals.
• Ensures prolonged availability of existing reserves.

Chapter 6 - Planning and Sustainable Development in the Indian Context

Introduction

Planning in Economic Development

1. Definition of Planning
• Process of thinking, formulating a scheme/programme, and executing actions to achieve a goal.
• Different from traditional hit-and-miss methods.

2. Context
• Used in reference to economic development in this chapter.

3. Types of Planning
3.1 Sectoral Planning
• Focus on specific sectors of the economy.
• Examples include:
• Agriculture
• Irrigation
• Manufacturing
• Power
• Construction
• Transport
• Communication
• Social infrastructure and services.
3.2 Regional Planning
• Addresses uneven economic development across a country.
• Aims to reduce regional imbalances in development.
• Takes a spatial perspective to planning.

Target Area Planning

1. Introduction
• Special attention in planning for economically backward areas.
• Regions can be resource-rich but still economically lagging due to a lack of technology and investment.

2. Planning Commission's Solution
• Recognized increasing regional imbalances in economic development.
• Introduced ‘target area’ and 'target group' approaches.

3. Programmes for Target Areas Development 3.1 Command Area Development Programme: Focus on irrigated areas of major irrigation projects. 3.2 Drought Prone Area Development Programme: Address areas frequently affected by droughts. 3.3 Desert Development Programme: Target desert areas for development. 3.4 Hill Area Development Programme: Focus on hilly or mountainous regions.

4. Target Group Programmes 4.1 Small Farmers Development Agency (SFDA): Aid for farmers with small landholdings. 4.2 Marginal Farmers Development Agency (MFDA): Support for farmers with very small landholdings or marginal farms.

5. 8th Five-Year Plan's Initiatives
• Designed special area programmes.
• Aimed at developing infrastructure in:
• Hill areas
• North-eastern states
• Tribal areas
• General backward areas.

Hill Area Development Programme

Hill Area Development Programme (HADP)

1. Introduction
• Launched during the Fifth Five Year Plan.
• Initially covered specific districts: 1.1 All hilly districts of Uttar Pradesh (now Uttarakhand). 1.2 Mikir Hill and North Cachar Hills (Assam). 1.3 Darjeeling (West Bengal). 1.4 Nilgiri (Tamil Nadu).

2. Recommendations by National Committee (1981)
• All hill areas >600m in elevation, not under tribal sub-plan, should be treated as backward hill areas.

3. Developmental Aims of HADP
• Address unique topographical, ecological, social, and economic challenges of hill areas. 3.1 Harness Indigenous Resources through: 3.1.1 Horticulture-plantation. 3.1.2 Agriculture. 3.1.3 Animal Husbandry. 3.1.4 Poultry. 3.1.5 Forestry. 3.1.6 Small-scale and village industry.

Drought Prone Area Programme

Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP)

1. Introduction
• Initiated during the Fourth Five Year Plan.
• Main objectives: 1.1. Provide employment in drought-prone areas. 1.2. Create productive assets.

2. Initial Focus
• Labour-intensive civil works construction.

3. Evolution of the Programme
• Shifted emphasis to: 3.1. Irrigation projects. 3.2. Land development. 3.3. Afforestation. 3.4. Grassland development. 3.5. Basic rural infrastructure: - Electricity. - Roads. - Market access. - Credit facilities. - Services.

4. Review by the National Committee on Development of Backward Areas
• Observed major focus on agriculture and allied sectors.
• Emphasized restoration of ecological balance.
• Identified the need for alternative employment opportunities.
• Recommended integrated watershed development approach.
• The stressed ecological balance between water, soil, plants, and population.

5. Identification of Drought-Prone Areas
• Planning Commission (1967): Identified 67 districts (either entirely or partially).
• Irrigation Commission (1972): Introduced a 30% irrigated area criterion. 5.1. Major Drought-prone areas include: - Semi-arid and arid regions of Rajasthan, Gujarat. - Western Madhya Pradesh. - Marathwada (Maharashtra). - Rayalseema and Telangana (Andhra Pradesh). - Karnataka plateau. - Interior parts of Tamil Nadu. 5.2. Areas with reduced drought impact due to irrigation: - Parts of Punjab, Haryana, north Rajasthan.

Case Study – Integrated Tribal Development Project in Bharmaur* Region

1. Introduction
• Located in Bharmaur and Holi tehsils of Chamba district, Himachal Pradesh.
• Notified tribal area on 21 November 1975.
• Inhabited by the ‘Gaddi’ tribal community.

2. Geographical & Social Context
• Climate: Harsh.
• Environment: Fragile.
• Population (2011 census): 39,113 (21 persons per sq km).
• One of the most backward areas of Himachal Pradesh.
• The economy is largely based on agriculture and livestock rearing.

3. Historical Background
• Gaddis experienced geographical and political isolation.
• Gaddis were recognized as ‘scheduled tribes’ in the 1970s.
• Under the Fifth Five Year Plan (1974): Designated as one of the five Integrated Tribal Development Projects (ITDP) in Himachal Pradesh.

4. Aims of the ITDP
• Improve the quality of life for Gaddis.
• The narrow development gap between Bharmaur and other Himachal regions.
• Prioritized: 4.1. Transport & communications. 4.2. Agriculture & allied activities. 4.3. Social & community services.

5. Outcomes of ITDP
• Infrastructure development: 5.1. Schools. 5.2. Healthcare facilities. 5.3. Potable water. 5.4. Roads. 5.5. Communications. 5.6. Electricity.
• Social improvements: 5.7. Increased literacy rate (Female literacy from 1.88% in 1971 to 65% in 2011). 5.8. Improved sex ratio. 5.9. Decline in child marriages.
• Economic shift: 5.10. Increased cultivation of pulses and cash crops. 5.11. Decline in the significance of pastoralism (only 1/10th of households practice transhumance). 5.12. Migration to nearby areas during winter for wage labor.

Map

Sustainable Development

1. Definition of Development
• State of societies & process of changes they undergo.
• Determined by the interaction between human societies & their bio-physical environment.
• Dependent on technology & institutions.
• Multi-dimensional: economy, society, environment.

2. Evolution of Development Concept 2.1. Post-WWII Era (1950s-60s) - Synonymous with economic growth. - Measured by GNP, per capita income/consumption. 2.2. 1970s - Incorporation of "redistribution with growth" & "growth and equity". - Addressing poverty & unequal distribution. 2.3. 1980s - Expanded to include well-being, living standards, health, education, equality, and political/civil rights.

3. Emergence of Sustainable Development
• Originated in the late 1960s due to environmental concerns.
• Triggered by publications like "The Population Bomb" (1968) & "The Limits to Growth" (1972).
• Aimed at countering undesirable effects of industrial development.

4. Brundtland Report (1987)
• Established by the United Nations' World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED).
• Headed by Norwegian Prime Minister Gro Harlem Brundtland.
• Definition: "Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."

5. Key Aspects of Sustainable Development
• Ecological: Environmental preservation.
• Social: Well-being of entire human race.
• Economic: Fair distribution of resources & opportunities.
• Future Orientation: Conservation for future generations

Map 1

Case Study: Indira Gandhi Canal (Nahar) Command Area

Indira Gandhi Canal (Nahar) Command Area

1. Overview
• Originally named Rajasthan Canal.
• One of India's largest canal systems.
• Conceptualized by Kanwar Sain in 1948, launched in 1958.

2. Geographical and Structural Details 2.1. Origin: Harike Barrage, Punjab. 2.2. Path: Runs parallel to the Pakistan border, ~40 km average distance in the Thar Desert. 2.3. Length: Planned - 9,060 km. 2.4. Culturable Command Area: 19.63 lakh hectares. - 70% by flow system, 30% by lift system. 2.5. Stages: - Stage-I: Covers Ganganagar, Hanumangarh, northern Bikaner (5.53 lakh hectares). - Stage II: Covers Bikaner, Jaisalmer, Barmer, Jodhpur, Nagaur, and Churu (14.10 lakh hectares).

3. Ecological & Economic Impact 3.1. Environmental Transformation: - Positive: Greener land, reduced wind erosion, siltation reduction. - Negative: Waterlogging and soil salinity due to intensive irrigation. 3.2. Agricultural Changes: - Increase in cultivated area and cropping intensity. - Shift from traditional crops (gram, bajra, jowar) to wheat, cotton, groundnut, rice. 3.3. Long-term Concern: Sustainability issues due to waterlogging and soil salinity.

Measures for the Promotion of Sustainable Development

1. Background
• Ecological sustainability is questioned by scholars.
• Past development led to physical environment degradation.
• Focus on restoring ecological balance for sustainable development.

2. Measures for Ecological Sustainability 2.1. Water Management: - Implement a strict water management policy. - Project aims for protective irrigation in Stage I and extensive in Stage II. 2.2. Cropping Pattern: - Avoid water-intensive crops. - Promote plantation crops like citrus fruits. 2.3. CAD (Command Area Development) Programmes: - Effective lining of water courses. - Land development and leveling. - Implement the warbands system for equal water distribution. 2.4. Land Reclamation: - Reclaim areas affected by waterlogging and soil salinity. 2.5. Eco-Development: - Afforestation. - Shelterbelt plantation. - Pasture development, especially in Stage II's fragile environment.

3. Social Sustainability 3.1. Support for Land Allottees: - Provide financial and institutional backing for land cultivators with weaker economic backgrounds.

4. Economic Sustainability 4.1. Diversification: - Develop agriculture and animal husbandry alongside other sectors. - Encourage the establishment of functional linkages between villages, agro-service centers, and market centers.

Additional Concepts

Transition from Planning Commission to NITI Aayog

1. Background:
• India initially adopted centralized planning post-independence.
• Gradually shifted to decentralized multi-level planning.
• The Planning Commission was responsible for plan formulation at various levels.

2. Formation of NITI Aayog:
• Established on 1 January 2015.
• Replaced the Planning Commission.

3. Objectives of NITI Aayog:
• Involve states in India's economic policy-making.
• Offer strategic and technical advice to Central and State governments.

Geographical Overview of Bharmaur Region

1. Location:
• Lies between 32° 11’ N and 32°41’ N latitudes, and 76° 22’ E and 76° 53’E longitudes.
• Area: Approximately 1,818 sq km.

2. Physical Features:
• Altitude: Ranges from 1,500 m to 3,700 m above sea level.
• Known as the homeland of the Gaddi tribe.
• Bordered by Pir Panjal in the north and Dhaula Dhar in the south.
• Dhaula Dhar and Pir Panjal converge near Rohtang Pass to the east.

3. Water Bodies:
• River Ravi and its tributaries - Budhil and Tundahen - drain the region.
• Carve out deep gorges and split the region into physiographic divisions: Holi, Khani, Kugti, and Tundah areas.

4. Climate:
• Freezing weather and snowfall during winters.
• Average temperatures: 4°C in January, 26°C in July.

Section 4 - Transport and Communication

Chapter 7 - Transport and Communication()

Introduction

Importance of Transport and Communication

1. Daily Essentials:
• Everyday items: toothpaste, tea, milk, clothes, soaps, food items, etc.
• All are purchased from markets.

2. Production to Consumption:
• Goods are produced at specific sites.
• Transportation ensures goods reach markets for consumers.
• This makes items available for purchase.

3. Beyond Material Goods:
• We also exchange ideas, views, and messages daily.
• Communication allows for the sharing and exchanging of these intangibles.
• Methods vary for communicating ideas and views.

4. Role of Transport and Communication:
• Vital for moving goods and ideas from their origin to their destination or user.
• Different methods are used based on the type of good or message and distance.

5. Major Means of Transportation:
• [Diagram not provided, but typically includes road, rail, air, and water transport.]

Flow Chart

Land Transport

1. Historical Development

• Ancient Times: Pathways and unmetalled roads were traditionally used for transportation.

• Modernization: With economic and technological development, metalled roads and railways were constructed.

2. Evolution of Transport Modes

• Metalled Roads: Built to facilitate the movement of a large volume of goods and people.

• Railways: Developed as a significant mode for long-distance and bulk transport.

3. Specialized Transport Solutions

• Ropeways and Cableways: Implemented for specific goods under special circumstances.

• Pipelines: Developed for transporting liquids and gases, addressing unique transport needs.

Road Transport

1. Extent of Road Network

• Size: India has the second-largest road network globally, totaling about 62.16 lakh km (as per the 2020-21 Annual Report by morth.nic.in).

• Traffic Carriage: Roads carry about 85% of passenger and 70% of freight traffic annually.

2. Suitability and Evolution

• Short-Distance Travel: Particularly effective for shorter distances.

• Pre-Independence Era: Limited development before World War II.

• Post-Independence Initiatives: The Nagpur Plan (1943) and the twenty-year road plan (1961) aimed to improve road conditions.

3. Road Concentration and Connectivity

• Urban Concentration: Roads are predominantly concentrated in urban areas.

• Rural Connectivity: Rural and remote areas have lesser road connectivity.

4. Road Classification

• National Highways (NH): For major interstate connectivity.

• State Highways (SH): Connecting major cities within states.

• Major District Roads: Important roads within districts.

• Rural Roads: Providing access to rural areas.

National Highways

1. Definition and Purpose

• Central Government Roads: National Highways are constructed and maintained by the Central Government.

• Functions: Facilitate inter-state transport and movement of defense personnel and materials, and connect state capitals, major cities, important ports, and railway junctions.

2. Expansion of National Highways

• Growth: Length increased from 19,700 km in 1951 to 1,36,440 km in 2020.

• Traffic Capacity: Despite constituting only 2% of total road length, they carry 40% of the road traffic.

3. National Highways Authority of India (NHAI)

• Establishment: Operationalised in 1995.

• Responsibilities: Development, maintenance, and operation of National Highways.

• Apex Body: Aims to improve the quality of roads designated as National Highways.

National Highways Development Projects

Golden Quadrilateral

• Objective: Connect India's four major metro cities: Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, and Kolkata.

• Specifications: 5,846-km long 4/6 lane high-density traffic corridor.

• Benefits: Reduction in time, distance, and cost of movement between these megacities.

North-South and East-West Corridors

• North-South Corridor: Connects Srinagar in Jammu and Kashmir with Kanniyakumari in Tamil Nadu, including Kochchi-Salem Spur, covering 4,076 km.

• East-West Corridor: Links Silchar in Assam to Porbandar in Gujarat, spanning 3,640 km.

State Highways

1. Management and Purpose

• State Responsibility: Constructed and maintained by state governments.

• Connectivity: Link state capitals with district headquarters and other significant towns.

2. Integration with National Highways

• Interconnection: State Highways are connected to National Highways for seamless travel.

3. Share in Road Network

• Proportion: State Highways constitute about 4% of the total road length in India.

District Roads

1. Function and Connectivity

• Purpose: Serve as a link between District Headquarters and other significant locations within the district.

2. Proportion in National Road Network

• Coverage: District Roads account for 14% of the total road length in the country.

Rural Roads

1. Significance and Coverage

• Key Role: Rural roads are crucial for linking various locations in rural areas.

• Major Share: Approximately 80% of India's total road length consists of rural roads.

2. Regional Variation

• Influence of Terrain: The density and distribution of rural roads vary regionally, often influenced by the nature of the terrain.

Other Roads

1. Border Roads

• Border Road Organisation (BRO): Established in May 1960 for development and defence preparedness.

• Functions: Focuses on improving roads along the northern and north-eastern boundaries.

• Achievements: Constructed high-altitude roads, including the one connecting Chandigarh with Manali and Leh, averaging 4,270 metres above sea level.

• Additional Responsibilities: Undertakes snow clearance in high-altitude areas.

2. International Highways

• Purpose: Designed to enhance harmonious relationships with neighboring countries.

• Functionality: Provides effective links between India and its neighbors.

Table

Table

Rail Transport

1. Overview and Historical Significance

• Global Standing: Indian Railways is one of the longest railway networks in the world.

• Historical Role: Mahatma Gandhi recognized its role in uniting diverse cultures during India's freedom struggle.

• Inception: Began in 1853 with the Bombay to Thane line (34 km).

2. Indian Railways as a Government Undertaking

• Network Size: As of the 2019-20 Railway Yearbook, the total network length was 67,956 km.

• Management: To manage this extensive network efficiently, Indian Railways is divided into 16 zones.

3. Modernization and Upgrades

• Gauge Conversion: Extensive programs to convert metre and narrow gauges to broad gauge.

• Engine Upgrades: Replacement of steam engines with diesel and electric engines, enhancing speed and haulage capacity.

• Environmental Impact: Improved environmental conditions at stations due to the phasing out of coal-run steam engines.

4. Urban Transport Revolution

• Metro Rail: Has significantly transformed urban transportation.

• CNG Vehicles: Introduction of CNG-run vehicles in cities aids in reducing air pollution.

5. Historical and Current Developments

• Colonial Era Developments: Initially focused on connecting towns, resource-rich areas, and strategic locations.

• Post-Independence Expansion: Routes extended beyond colonial aims, including significant projects like the Konkan Railway.

6. Geographical Variations

• Network Density: Railway network is less dense in hill states, north-eastern states, central India, and Rajasthan.

Water Transport

1. Importance of Water Transport

• Role: Key mode for passenger and cargo traffic.

• Advantages: Cost-effective, suitable for heavy and bulky materials, fuel-efficient, and eco-friendly.

2. Types of Water Transport

• Inland Waterways: Navigable rivers and canals used for domestic transport.

• Oceanic Waterways: Sea routes used for international trade and transport.

Inland Waterways

1. Historical Context and Current Status

• Pre-Railways Era: Inland waterways were the primary mode of transport.

• Challenges: Faced competition from road and railway transport; irrigation diversions affected navigability.

• Current Contribution: 14,500 km of navigable waterways, contributing about 1% to India's transportation.

2. Composition of Inland Waterways

• Components: Include rivers, canals, backwaters, and creeks.

• Navigable Rivers: 5,685 km of major rivers navigable by mechanized flat-bottom vessels.

3. Management and Development

• Inland Waterways Authority: Established in 1986 for development, maintenance, and regulation of national waterways.

• National Waterways: Several waterways declared as National Waterways by the Government.

• Future Potential: Identification of additional inland waterways for potential upgrade.

4. Special Features

• Kerala Backwaters: Known for providing transport and attracting tourism.

• Cultural Significance: Venue for the famous Nehru Trophy Boat Race (VALLAMKALI).

Oceanic Routes

1. Geographic Overview

• Coastline: India has an extensive coastline of approximately 7,517 km, including islands.

2. Port Infrastructure

• Major Ports: There are twelve major ports.

• Minor Ports: Along with the major ports, there are 185 minor ports supporting oceanic transportation.

3. Economic Significance

• Trade Volume: About 95% of India's foreign trade by volume is conducted via ocean routes.

• Trade Value: Approximately 70% of trade by value is handled through these routes.

4. Domestic and International Usage

• International Trade: Primary use for international trade purposes.

• Domestic Connectivity: Also crucial for transportation between Indian islands and the mainland.

Table

Air Transportation

1. Significance of Air Transport

• Fastest Mode: Reduces travel time significantly, especially important in a large country like India with diverse terrain and climatic conditions.

• Essential for Connectivity: Crucial for connecting distant and difficult-to-reach areas.

2. Historical Development

• Early Beginnings: Started in 1911 with airmail operations between Allahabad and Naini.

• Post-Independence Expansion: Significant growth and development in the air transport sector after India's independence.

3. Management and Operations

• Airport Authority of India: Responsible for safe and efficient air traffic and aeronautical communication services.

• Number of Airports: Manages 125 airports across the country.

• Pawan Hans Helicopters: Offers helicopter services, particularly in hilly and north-eastern regions, catering to petroleum sector and tourism.

Oil and Gas Pipelines

• Pipelines: Efficient mode for transporting liquids, and gases.

• Can transport solids after converting to slurry.

2. Oil India Limited (OIL):

• Overview:
• Under the Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas.
• Focus: Exploration, production, and transportation of oil & natural gas.

• History:
• Incorporated in 1959.
• Constructed Asia’s first cross-country pipeline (1,157 km) from Naharkatiya (Assam) to Barauni (Bihar).
• Extended to Kanpur in 1966.

3. GAIL (India) Ltd:

• Overview:
• Set up in 1984 as a public sector.
• Role: Transport, process, and market natural gas.

• Achievements:
• Constructed a 1,700 km HVJ pipeline, connecting Mumbai High and Bassein gas fields to western and northern India.
• Pivotal in developing India's gas market.

• Future Development:
• Infrastructure expanded from 1,700 km to 18,500 km.
• Planned expansion to 34,000 km as Gas Grid, linking the entire country.

Communication Networks()

1. Evolution of Communication

• Early Methods: Use of drums, smoke, fire, and fast runners.

• Animal Messengers: Horses, camels, dogs, and birds were employed.

• Overlap with Transportation: Initial communication means were also transportation modes.

2. Technological Advancements

• Post-Office and Telegraph: Marked significant steps in communication development.

• Printing Press: Revolutionized information dissemination.

• Telephone: Enabled direct and instant voice communication.

• Satellites: Facilitated global communication networks.

• Impact of Science and Technology: Brought a revolution in communication methods and efficiency.

3. Modern Communication Modes

• Categorized based on scale and quality.

• Includes a wide array of digital and electronic methods.

Personal Communication System

1. Internet as a Personal Communication System

• Widespread Usage: Primarily in urban areas.

• Functions:
1. Direct Contact: Facilitates e-mail communication.
2. Access to Information: Provides a gateway to vast knowledge and data.
3. E-commerce: Used for online shopping and financial transactions.

• Efficiency: Offers an effective way to access information at a lower cost.

• Direct Communication: Enables real-time interaction and exchange of information.

2. Advantages of Internet

• Cost-Effectiveness: More affordable compared to other modes of communication.

• Information Repository: Acts as a central warehouse for diverse information.

• Economic Activities: Facilitates e-commerce and online transactions efficiently.

Mass Communication System

Radio

1. Development of Radio in India

• Origin: Started in 1923 by the Radio Club of Bombay.

• Evolution:
1. Government Control: In 1930, became the Indian Broadcasting System.
2. Rebranding: Renamed to All India Radio in 1936 and Akashwani in 1957.

• Popularity: Quickly became a household feature across the country.

2. Functions of All India Radio

• Diverse Broadcasting: Offers programmes on information, education, and entertainment.

• Special News Bulletins: Broadcasts news during significant events like parliament sessions.

• Sociocultural Impact: Played a key role in shaping the sociocultural landscape of India.

Television (T.V.)

1. Development of Television Broadcasting in India

• Initiation: Began in the National Capital in 1959.

• Expansion:
1. Post-1972: Expansion to several other centers across the country.
2. Separation from AIR: In 1976, Television was delinked from All India Radio, forming Doordarshan (DD).

• INSAT-IA Impact: Post-implementation, led to the start of Common National Programmes (CNP) and expanded services to remote and rural areas.

2. Role and Impact of Doordarshan

• Effective Medium: Emerged as a potent audio-visual tool for information dissemination and education.

• National Reach: Ensured access to television services even in backward and remote areas.

• Cultural Impact: Played a significant role in uniting diverse cultures and educating the masses nationwide.

Satellite Communication

1. Satellite Communication in India: Overview

• Functions: Satellites are not just communication tools but also regulate other communication means.

• Importance: Vital for continuous and wide-area observation, particularly for strategic and economic reasons.

2. Applications of Satellite Communication

• Weather Forecasting: Crucial for predicting weather patterns.

• Natural Calamity Monitoring: Effective in tracking and managing natural disasters.

• Surveillance: Used for monitoring border areas and national security.

3. Indian Satellite Systems

• INSAT System (1983): Multi-purpose system for telecommunications, meteorological observations, and other data.

• IRS System (1988): Operational with the launch of IRS-IA for remote sensing applications.

• PSLV: India's indigenous Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle.

• Data Management: Managed by the National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC) in Hyderabad, facilitating data acquisition and processing.

• Natural Resource Management: Key in managing various natural resources effectively.

Table

Additional Concepts

1. Historical Roads:

• Sher Shah Suri's Shahi Road:
• Connected Indus Valley to Sonar Valley in Bengal.
• Renamed Grand Trunk (GT) Road during the British era.
• Currently stretches from Amritsar to Kolkata.

2. National Highways Development Projects:

• Golden Quadrilateral:
• 5,846-km, 4/6 lane connecting Delhi-Mumbai-Chennai-Kolkata.

• North-South and East-West Corridors:
• North-South: Srinagar to Kanniyakumari (4,076-km).
• East-West: Silchar to Porbandar (3,640-km).

• Atal Tunnel:
• World’s longest highway tunnel (9.02 km).
• Connects Manali to Lahaul-Spiti Valley.
• Built at 3000 metres altitude.

• Bharatmala Scheme:
• Coastal border roads, connectivity to non-major ports, and tourist places.
• Setubharatam Pariyojana for bridges and rail connections.
• Target completion: 2022.

3. Indian Railways:

• Gauge Categories:
• Broad gauge: 1.676 metres (63,950 km).
• Metre gauge: 1 metre (2,402 km).
• Narrow gauge: 0.762 or 0.610 metres (1,604 km).

• Konkan Railway:
• 760-km route from Roha (Maharashtra) to Mangalore (Karnataka).
• Crosses 146 rivers, 2000 bridges, and 91 tunnels.
• Contains Asia’s largest tunnel (6.5 km).

Chapter 8 - International Trade

Introduction

1. Background:

• India's international trade is crucial even if it contributes to only 1% of total world trade.

• Previous studies covered in "Fundamentals of Human Geography".

2. Trade Growth:

• 1950-51: Trade value = Rs. 1,214 crore.

• 2016-17: Trade value = Rs. 44,29,762 crore.

• Growth is attributed to manufacturing momentum, the government's liberal policies, and market diversification.

3. Changing Nature of Trade:

• Increase in total volume of both import and export.

• The value of imports is consistently higher than exports.

Changing Pattern of the Composition of India’s Exports

1. Overview:

• Over time, the composition of India's international trade commodities has evolved.

2. Agricultural Products:

• Decline in share, especially traditional items like coffee, and cashews.

• Notable increase in exports:
• 2.1. Floricultural products
• 2.2. Fresh fruits
• 2.3. Marine products
• 2.4. Sugar

3. Manufacturing Sector:

• Dominant contributor: 73.6% of total export value in 2016-17.

• Significant growth in engineering goods exports.

• Main competitors: China and East Asian countries.

4. Gems and Jewellery:

• A major component of India's foreign trade, contributing a significant share.

5. Shift in Export Composition:

• Decline: Agricultural and traditional items (due to intense international competition).

• Rise: Petroleum, crude products, and some agricultural commodities.

Graph

Table 1

Table 2

Table 3

Changing Patterns of the Composition of India’s Import

1. Overview of Changing Composition of India's Imports

• Initial Phase (1950s-60s): Primary imports included food grain, capital goods, machinery, and equipment due to food shortages.

• Post-Green Revolution (1970s): Reduction in food grain imports, rise in fertilizer and petroleum imports.

2. Shifts in Import Patterns

• Petroleum Products: Significant increase, indicating industrial growth and improved living standards.

• Capital Goods: Steady rise in imports like non-electrical machinery, transport equipment, and steel for industrial needs.

• Decline in Food-related Imports: Reduction in edible oil imports due to domestic production.

• Other Major Imports: Pearls, semi-precious stones, gold, silver, metalliferous ores, metal scrap, non-ferrous metals, and electronic goods.

3. Contemporary Import Trends (2016-17)

• Notable Increase: In petroleum products due to industrial demand and international market price fluctuations.

• Capital Goods Demand: Rise in demand for export-oriented and domestic sectors.

• Diverse Import Basket: Includes a wide range of items from precious metals to electronic goods.

Table 1

Table 2

Table 3

Direction of Trade

1. India's Direction of Trade: Key Points

• Global Trade Relations: India maintains trade relationships with a wide range of countries and major trading blocs worldwide.

• Trade Growth Goal: Aims to double its international trade share within the next five years.

• Liberalization Measures: Includes import liberalization, reduction in import duties, delicensing, and shifting from process to product patents.

• Primary Trade Routes: The majority of India’s foreign trade is conducted via sea and air routes.

2. Regional Trade

• Neighboring Countries: A small but significant portion of trade occurs through land routes with countries like Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Pakistan.

• Strategic Importance: Land routes play a crucial role in regional trade, especially with bordering nations.

Table

Sea Ports as Gateways of International Trade

1. Sea Ports as Gateways of International Trade in India: Key Points

• Geographical Advantage: Surrounded by sea on three sides with a long coastline.

• Historical Significance: The long tradition of sea-faring; ports named with 'pattan' indicating port.

• West vs East Coast: More ports on the west coast compared to the east coast.

• Colonial Impact: European traders and British colonization highlighted the importance of ports in international trade.

• Major and Minor Ports: India has 12 major ports and 200 minor/intermediate ports. Major ports handle a larger share of traffic.

• Governance: Major ports are under central government policy and regulation, while minor ports are regulated by state governments.

• Post-Independence Growth: Despite losing Karachi and Chittagong ports during partition, Indian ports have continued to grow.

• Modernization and Expansion: Shift from government-only to private involvement in port modernization.

• Increased Capacity: Cargo handling capacity increased from 20 million tonnes (1951) to over 837 million tonnes (2016).

2. Notable Indian Ports and Their Hinterlands

• Specific Ports: Mention key Indian ports and their associated hinterlands.

Kandla Port

• Location and Purpose: Situated at the head of the Gulf of Kuchchh; developed to serve the western and northwestern parts of India and to alleviate pressure from Mumbai port.

• Specialization: Primarily designed for handling large volumes of petroleum, petroleum products, and fertilizers.

• Offshore Terminal: Vadinar terminal was developed to reduce load on Kandla port.

• Hinterland Overlap: The hinterland of Kandla port may overlap with those of other ports, indicating shared areas of service and influence.

2. Notable Features of Kandla Port

• Strategic Importance: Emphasize its role in serving the western and northwestern regions of India.

• Facilities and Operations: Highlight the specific capabilities of Kandla port, especially in handling petroleum and fertilizer.

• Hinterland Dynamics: Discuss the concept of overlapping hinterlands among Indian ports.

Mumbai

1. Mumbai Port: Key Points

• Type and Size: A natural harbour; the largest port in India.

• Location Advantages: Proximity to trade routes connecting the Middle East, Mediterranean, North Africa, North America, and Europe.

• Infrastructure: Extends over 20 km in length and 6-10 km in width, featuring 54 berths and the country's largest oil terminal.

• Hinterland: Primarily serves Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Uttar Pradesh, and parts of Rajasthan.

2. Notable Features of Mumbai Port

• Strategic Significance: Stress the port's role in India's overseas trade, particularly with key global regions.

• Operational Capabilities: Highlight the port's extensive infrastructure and its capacity to handle diverse types of cargo, including oil.

• Regional Connectivity: Discuss the economic influence of Mumbai Port on its hinterland regions.

Jawaharlal Nehru Port

1. Jawaharlal Nehru Port (Nhava Sheva): Key Points

• Purpose: Developed to alleviate congestion at Mumbai Port.

• Status: Recognized as India's largest container port.

• Location: Situated at Nhava Sheva.

2. Notable Features of Jawaharlal Nehru Port

• Role and Function: Emphasize the port's primary function in container handling and its significance in reducing the load on Mumbai Port.

• Infrastructure and Capacity: Highlight the port's modern facilities and capabilities in managing large volumes of container traffic.

• Strategic Importance: Discuss the importance of the port in India's maritime trade, especially in container shipping.

Marmagao Port

1. Marmagao Port: Key Points

• Location: Situated at the entrance of the Zuari estuary, Goa.

• Significance: Gained importance post-1961 remodeling for iron-ore exports to Japan.

• Connectivity: Enhanced by the construction of the Konkan Railway.

2. Notable Features of Marmagao Port

• Export Focus: Emphasize the port's role in iron-ore export, particularly to Japan.

• Railway Connectivity: Highlight the impact of the Konkan Railway on extending the port's hinterland.

• Hinterland Regions: Include details about the hinterland comprising Karnataka, Goa, and Southern Maharashtra, illustrating the port's regional influence.

New Mangalore Port

1. New Mangalore Port: Key Points

• Location: Situated in Karnataka.

• Primary Functions: Focus on iron-ore and iron-concentrate exports.

• Diverse Cargo Handling: Manages fertilizers, petroleum products, edible oils, coffee, tea, wood pulp, yarn, granite stone, and molasses.

2. Notable Features of New Mangalore Port

• Commodity Range: Emphasize the port's versatility in handling a wide range of commodities, from bulk items like iron-ore to consumer goods like coffee and tea.

• Strategic Role in Exports: Highlight the port's significance in exporting iron-ore and concentrates.

• Hinterland: Karnataka as the major hinterland, indicating the regional economic significance of the port.

Kochi Port

1. Kochchi Port: Key Points

• Location: At the head of Vembanad Kayal, known as the 'Queen of the Arabian Sea'.

• Natural Harbor: A natural harbor with a strategic location.

• Geographical Advantage: Proximity to the Suez-Colombo route enhances its significance.

2. Notable Features of Kochchi Port

• Strategic Route Proximity: Emphasizes the port's advantageous position near major international shipping routes.

• Service Area: Serves the needs of Kerala, southern Karnataka, and southwestern Tamil Nadu, indicating its regional importance.

• Cultural Significance: Recognized as the 'Queen of the Arabian Sea', highlighting its historical and cultural relevance.

Kolkata Port

1. Kolkata Port: Key Points

• Location: Situated on the Hugli River, 128 km inland from the Bay of Bengal.

• Historical Development: Developed by the British; was initially the capital of British India.

• Current Status: Lost some significance due to the rise of other ports like Vishakhapatnam, Paradwip, and Haldia.

2. Challenges and Service Area of Kolkata Port

• Silt Accumulation Issue: Faces the problem of silt accumulation in the Hugli River.

• Hinterland Coverage: Serves U.P., Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Sikkim, and north-eastern states.

• International Service: Provides port facilities to neighboring land-locked countries like Nepal and Bhutan.

Haldia Port

1. Haldia Port: Overview

• Location: Situated 105 km downstream from Kolkata.

• Purpose: Constructed to alleviate congestion at Kolkata Port.

2. Functions and Cargo Handling at Haldia Port

• Bulk Cargo Management: Handles a variety of bulk cargo including iron ore, coal, petroleum, and fertilizers.

• Other Commodities: Also deals with jute, jute products, cotton, and cotton yarn.

Paradwip Port

1. Paradwip Port: Overview

• Location: Situated in the Mahanadi delta, around 100 km from Cuttack.

• Characteristic: Known for its deep harbor, capable of accommodating very large vessels.

2. Main Functionality of Paradwip Port

• Primary Focus: Developed mainly for the large-scale export of iron ore.

• Hinterland Regions: Serves Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand.

Vishakhapatnam port

1. Visakhapatnam Port: Key Features

• Location: Situated in Andhra Pradesh.

• Unique Aspect: A land-locked harbor, connected to the sea via a channel through rock and sand.

2. Functions and Hinterland of Visakhapatnam Port

• Development: Features an outer harbor developed for handling diverse cargo.

• Cargo Types: Specifically handles iron ore, petroleum, and general cargo.

• Hinterland: Primarily serves Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.

Chennai Port

1. Chennai Port: Overview

• History & Construction: One of the oldest ports on the eastern coast, constructed in 1859.

• Type: An artificial harbor.

2. Characteristics and Limitations

• Navigation Limitation: Not highly suitable for large ships due to shallow waters near the coast.

3. Chennai Port's Hinterland

• Primary Regions Served: Caters to the needs of Tamil Nadu and Puducherry.

Ennore

1. Ennore Port: Introduction

• Location: Situated 25 km north of Chennai, Tamil Nadu.

• Purpose: Developed to alleviate the load on Chennai Port.

2. Key Features

• New Development: A recent addition to the ports in Tamil Nadu.

• Function: Primarily serves to reduce congestion at the Chennai port

Tuticorin Port

1. Tuticorin Port: Overview

• Purpose: Developed to ease the load on Chennai Port.

• Location: Situated in Tamil Nadu.

2. Operational Details

• Cargo Handling: Manages a diverse range of cargo.

• Types of Cargo: Includes coal, salt, food grains, edible oils, sugar, chemicals, and petroleum products.

Map

Airports

1. Significance of Air Transport:

• 1.1. Vital for international trade.

• 1.2. Benefits:
• 1.2.1. Fastest mode of transport.
• 1.2.2. Ideal for high-value or perishable goods.

• 1.3. Limitations:
• 1.3.1. Expensive.
• 1.3.2. Unsuitable for heavy/bulky commodities.

• 1.4. Less participation in international trade compared to oceanic routes.

2. Major Airports in India:

• 2.1. As of 2016-17, 25 major airports.

• 2.2. List of Major Airports:
• 2.2.1. Ahmedabad
• 2.2.2. Bengaluru
• 2.2.3. Chennai
• 2.2.4. Delhi
• 2.2.5. Goa
• 2.2.6. Guwahati
• 2.2.7. Hyderabad
• 2.2.8. Kolkata
• 2.2.9. Mumbai
• 2.2.10. Thiruvananthapuram
• 2.2.11. Srinagar
• 2.2.12. Jaipur
• 2.2.13. Calicut
• 2.2.14. Nagpur
• 2.2.15. Coimbatore
• 2.2.16. Cochin
• 2.2.17. Lucknow
• 2.2.18. Pune
• 2.2.19. Chandigarh
• 2.2.20. Mangaluru
• 2.2.21. Vishakhapatnam
• 2.2.22. Indore
• 2.2.23. Patna
• 2.2.24. Bhubaneswar
• 2.2.25. Kannur

Map

Section 5 - Geographical perspective on selected issues and problems

Chapter 9 - Pollution

Environmental Pollution

1. Definition of Environmental Pollution:

• 1.1. Results from the discharge of substances and energy from human activity waste products.

2. Classification of Pollution: Based on mediums for pollutant transport and diffusion:

• 2.1. Air Pollution: Pollutants released into the atmosphere.

• 2.2. Water Pollution: Contaminants in water bodies like rivers, lakes, and oceans.

• 2.3. Land Pollution: Pollution affecting the earth's surface, often due to waste disposal.

• 2.4. Noise Pollution: Disruptive or harmful noises in the environment.

Table

Water Pollution

1. Introduction to Water Pollution:

• 1.1. Caused by increased population, industrial expansion, and indiscriminate water use.

• 1.2. Water in natural sources like rivers and lakes is never purely clean but has tolerable impurities.

2. Sources of Water Pollution:

• 2.1. Natural: Erosion, landslides, decay of plants and animals.

• 2.2. Human Activities:
• 2.2.1. Industrial Activities: Produces wastes, polluted water, poisonous gases, and chemicals.
• 2.2.1.1. Major Polluting Industries: Leather, pulp & paper, textiles, and chemicals.
• 2.2.2. Agricultural Activities: Use of inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides.
• 2.2.2.1. Results in increased nitrate content in waters.
• 2.2.3. Cultural Activities: Pilgrimage, religious fairs, tourism.

3. Consequences of Water Pollution:

• 3.1. Destroys bio-systems of waters.

• 3.2. Source of water-borne diseases like diarrhea, intestinal worms, and hepatitis.

• 3.3. WHO: ~25% of communicable diseases in India are water-borne.

4. River Ganga & Efforts for Cleanup:

• 4.1. River Ganga, flowing through densely populated regions, is notably polluted.

• 4.2. Initiatives for Cleanup:
• 4.2.1. National Mission for Clean Ganga.
• 4.2.2. Namami Gange Programme.

Table

Air Pollution

1. Definition of Air Pollution:

• 1.1. Introduction of contaminants (dust, fumes, gas, fog, odour, smoke, vapour) to air.

• 1.2. Concentration and duration significant enough to harm flora, fauna, and property.

2. Causes of Air Pollution:

• 2.1. Increased use of diverse fuels for energy.

• 2.2. Major Sources:
• 2.2.1. Combustion of fossil fuels.
• 2.2.2. Mining.
• 2.2.3. Industrial processes.

• 2.3. Emitted Pollutants:
• 2.3.1. Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen.
• 2.3.2. Hydrocarbons.
• 2.3.3. Carbon dioxide and monoxide.
• 2.3.4. Lead and asbestos.

3. Health Effects:

• 3.1. Affects respiratory, nervous, and circulatory systems.

• 3.2. Urban smog (smoky fog over cities) is detrimental to health.

4. Environmental Impact:

• 4.1. Acid Rains:
• 4.1.1. Caused by air pollution.
• 4.1.2. pH value of the first rain post-summer is lower than subsequent rains due to pollution.

Noise Pollution

1. Definition of Noise Pollution:

• 1.1. An unbearable and uncomfortable state caused by excessive noise.

2. Emergence of Concern:

• 2.1. Became a significant issue due to technological advancements in recent years.

3. Major Sources:

• 3.1. Factories.

• 3.2. Mechanised construction and demolition.

• 3.3. Vehicles (automobiles and aircraft).

• 3.4. Periodical sources:
• 3.4.1. Sirens.
• 3.4.2. Loudspeakers during festivals and community events.

4. Measurement:

• 4.1. Sound level measured in decibels (dB).

5. Major Contributors:

• 5.1. Traffic noise:
• 5.1.1. Intensity varies with the type of vehicle, road condition, and vehicle condition.

• 5.2. Seaport noise:
• 5.2.1. Primarily during loading and unloading.

• 5.3. Industrial noise:
• 5.3.1. Intensity varies based on industry type.

6. Characteristics:

• 6.1. Location-specific.

• 6.2. Intensity decreases as the distance from the source increases.

7. Areas Affected:

• 7.1. Especially prominent in metropolitan and large cities in India.

Urban Waste Disposition

1. Urban Challenges:

• 1.1. Overcrowding, congestion.

• 1.2. Insufficient facilities for the growing population.

• 1.3. Poor sanitation and air quality.

2. Solid Waste:

• 2.1. Refers to old/used items like metals, glassware, plastics, ash, etc.

• 2.2. Other terms: refuse, garbage, rubbish.

• 2.3. Sources:
• 2.3.1. Household/domestic.
• 2.3.2. Industrial/commercial.

• 2.4. Disposal methods:
• 2.4.1. Public lands.
• 2.4.2. Private contractor sites.
• 2.4.3. Low-lying public grounds (landfills).

3. Health Hazards:

• 3.1. Obnoxious smell.

• 3.2. Flies and rodents leading to diseases (typhoid, cholera, etc.).

• 3.3. Careless handling can spread waste.

4. Industrial Wastes:

• 4.1. Concentration around urban centers.

• 4.2. Dumping into rivers causes water pollution.

• 4.3. Leads to health issues downstream.

5. Urban Waste Disposal in India:

• 5.1. Metropolitan cities (Mumbai, Kolkata, etc.) collect & dispose 90% of waste.

• 5.2. Other cities leave 30-50% uncollected; accumulates on streets.

• 5.3. Accumulated waste leads to health hazards.

• 5.4. Wastes should be treated for energy and compost.

• 5.5. Untreated wastes release toxic biogas, including methane.

Rural-Urban Migration

1. Causes of Rural-Urban Migration:

• 1.1. High demand for labor in urban areas.

• 1.2. Limited job opportunities in rural areas.

• 1.3. Unbalanced development between rural and urban areas.

2. Migration Pattern in India:

• 2.1. Rapid urban population increase.

• 2.2. Poor bypass small cities and move directly to megacities.

3. Case Study: Ramesh's Migration:

• 3.1. Initial Situation:
• 3.1.1. Worked as a welder in Talcher.
• 3.1.2. Moved to various cities with contractors.
• 3.1.3. Sent Rs. 20,000/year to his village.

• 3.2. Impact on Ramesh's Family:
• 3.2.1. Improved standard of living.
• 3.2.2. Money used for consumption, healthcare, education, and investments.

• 3.3. Ramesh's Past:
• 3.3.1. Family faced poverty and debt.
• 3.3.2. Influenced by successful migrants.

• 3.4. Migration Journey:
• 3.4.1. Moved to Ludhiana, and worked in a woolen factory.
• 3.4.2. Shifted to Surat, and learned welding skills.
• 3.4.3. Moved with the contractor to different places.

• 3.5. Challenges:
• 3.5.1. Separation from family due to unstable job.

4. Comments on Rural-Urban Migration:

• 4.1. Migrants often end up in menial, low-wage jobs in urban areas.

• 4.2. Families often remain in rural areas.

• 4.3. Migration dominated by males in developing countries.

Problems of Slums

1. Definition of Urban and Rural Settlements:

• 1.1. "Urban" differentiates from "Rural" in settlement geography.

• 1.2. Definitions vary by country.

2. Rural-Urban Dynamics in India:

• 2.1. India's population is predominantly rural (~69% in 2011).

• 2.2. Rural areas are often seen as secondary to urban centers.

• 2.3. Rural areas primarily involve primary activities.

3. Urban Diversity:

• 3.1. Urban centers in India exhibit diverse socio-economic and cultural characteristics.

• 3.2. High-income areas feature well-developed infrastructure and amenities.

• 3.3. Contrastingly, slums and shanty areas lack basic infrastructure.

4. Slums in Urban India:

• 4.1. Definition: Underdeveloped areas with poor housing, hygiene, and amenities.

• 4.2. Slums arise due to rural-urban migration and the inability to afford proper housing.

• 4.3. Characteristics:
• 4.3.1. Dilapidated housing.
• 4.3.2. Poor sanitation and lack of clean water.
• 4.3.3. Overcrowding and narrow streets.
• 4.3.4. Open defecation and unregulated drainage.

5. Socio-economic Issues of Slum Dwellers:

• 5.1. Predominantly work in low-paid, risky, unorganized sectors.

• 5.2. Health vulnerabilities: Malnutrition, diseases.

• 5.3. Limited access to education.

• 5.4. Social challenges: Drug abuse, crime, social exclusion.

Land Degradation

1. Introduction

• 1.1. Pressure on agricultural land rises due to limited availability and quality deterioration.

• 1.2. Causes: Soil erosion, waterlogging, salinisation, and alkalinisation.

2. Land Degradation Defined

• 2.1. Temporary or permanent decline in land's productive capacity.

• 2.2. Unchecked degradation can convert land into wasteland.

3. Causes of Degradation

• 3.1. Two main processes: natural and human-induced.

• 3.2. Wastelands are categorized by their creation process (e.g., gullied land, desertic sands, barren rock areas).

• 3.3. Human actions cause more wastelands than natural processes.

4. Case Study: Jhabua District

• 4.1. Located in Madhya Pradesh; one of the five most backward districts.

• 4.2. Predominantly tribal population (mainly Bhils).

• 4.3. Watershed management programs have successfully prevented land degradation.

5. Watershed Management Programs

• 5.1. Recognize the linkage between land, water, and vegetation.

• 5.2. Aim to improve livelihoods through natural resource management and community participation.

6. Petlawad Block Experience

• 6.1. Successful example of Government-NGO partnership.

• 6.2. Community efforts have revitalized large parts of common property resources.

• 6.3. Focus on sustainable practices like planting trees, developing pastures, and stall feeding of cattle.

Additional Concepts

1. Namami Gange Programme

• 1.1. Aim: Clean the Ganga River by controlling pollution.

• 1.2. Objectives:
• 1.2.1. Develop sewerage treatment in towns.
• 1.2.2. Monitor industrial effluents.
• 1.2.3. Develop riverfront.
• 1.2.4. Afforestation along the bank.
• 1.2.5. Clean river surface.
• 1.2.6. Develop ‘Ganga Grams’ in specific states.
• 1.2.7. Raise public awareness.

2. Daurala Case Study

• 2.1. Village near Meerut.

• 2.2. Groundwater was contaminated due to industrial wastewater.

• 2.3. Collaborative efforts of NGOs, industries, and government led to ecological restoration.

• 2.4. Implemented water management, tree planting, and infrastructure enhancements.

3. Urban Population Growth

• 3.1. 47% of the global population in cities (expected to rise).

• 3.2. By 2050, two-thirds are projected to live in urban areas.

• 3.3. Urban growth factors: natural increase, in-migration, and reclassification.

4. Dharavi - Asia’s Largest Slum

• 4.1. Located in central Bombay.

• 4.2. Overcrowded, limited accessibility.

• 4.3. Despite conditions, produces valuable goods for the market.

• 4.4. Originally a sea arm filled with waste.

5. Swachh Bharat Mission (SBM)

• 5.1. Part of the urban renewal mission by the Indian Government.

• 5.2. Goal: Improve the quality of life in urban slums.