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✅Class 6: Social Science: The Earth Our Habitat: textbook in Geography for Class VI, 2006
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✅Class 6: Social Science: The Earth Our Habitat: textbook in Geography for Class VI, 2006

Chapter 1 - The Earth in the Solar System
Introduction
Celestial Bodies
  1. Introduction
      • The night sky is filled with shining objects.
      • They appear as if the sky is studded with diamonds.
      • Some objects twinkle while others don't.
  1. The Moon
      • Appears at different times, shapes, and positions.
      • Full moon night: Poornima.
      • New moon night: Amavasya (moon not visible).
      • Best to observe stars on a new moon if the night is clear.
      • Can't see the moon and stars in the daytime due to the sun's brightness.
  1. Celestial Bodies
      • Include the sun, moon, and all objects in the night sky.
  1. Stars
      • Big, hot bodies made of gases.
      • Emit their own heat and light.
      • The sun is a star.
      • Other stars look tiny because they are very far away.
      • Objects look smaller when seen from a distance (e.g., an airplane flying high).
  1. Constellations
      • Patterns formed by different groups of stars.
      • Example: Ursa Major or Big Bear.
      • Recognizable constellation: Saptarishi (7 stars, part of Ursa Major).
      • Ancient people determined directions using stars.
      • The North Star (Pole Star) indicates the north direction and remains in the same position.
      • The position of the Pole Star can be located using the Saptarishi.
  1. Planets
      • Do not have their own heat and light.
      • Lit by stars.
      • Derived from the Greek word “Planetai” meaning 'wanderers'.
      • Earth is a planet and gets its heat and light from the sun.
      • Appears shining when seen from a distance, like the moon.
  1. Satellites
      • The moon is a satellite of Earth.
      • Moves around Earth.
      • Other planets have their own moons/satellites.
The Solar System
  1. Introduction
      • Comprises the sun, eight planets, satellites, asteroids, and meteoroids.
      • Often referred to as the solar family with the sun at its core.
  1. The Sun
      • Located at the center of the solar system.
      • Made of extremely hot gases.
      • Provides gravitational force binding the solar system.
      • Ultimate source of heat and light.
      • Approximately 150 million km away from Earth.
  1. Planets
      • Eight in total: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune.
      • Mnemonic: MY VERY EFFICIENT MOTHER JUST SERVED US NUTS.
      • Move-in fixed, elongated paths called orbits.
      • Mercury is closest to the sun and completes one orbit in 88 days.
      • Venus is dubbed 'Earth’s-twin' due to its similarity in size and shape.
  1. Former Planet: Pluto
      • Was a planet until August 2006.
      • Now termed a ‘dwarf planet’ along with other celestial objects like Ceres, 2003 UB313.
  1. The Earth
      • Third planet from the sun.
      • Fifth largest in size.
      • Shape: Geoid (earth-like, flattened at poles).
      • Unique due to life-supporting conditions.
      • Appears blue from space due to two-thirds water surface, hence called blue planet.
  1. The Moon
      • Earth's only satellite.
      • The diameter is one-quarter of Earth.
      • 3,84,400 km away from Earth.
      • Orbits Earth in about 27 days, the same duration for one spin.
      • Only one side is visible from Earth.
      • Lacks life-supporting conditions but has mountains, plains, and depressions.
  1. Asteroids
      • Tiny bodies orbiting the sun.
      • Located between Mars and Jupiter's orbits.
      • Believed to be remnants of an exploded planet.
  1. Meteoroids
      • Small rock pieces orbiting the sun.
      • Can fall on Earth, burning up and creating a flash of light.
      • If not completely burnt, can create a hollow on Earth's surface.
  1. Galaxies & Universe
      • Milky Way: A band of millions of stars, our solar system is part of it.
      • Known as Akash Ganga in ancient India.
      • Galaxies are massive systems of stars, dust, and gases.
      • Millions of galaxies form the Universe.
      • The universe's size is still uncertain.
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Interesting Facts
Celestial Bodies and Space Exploration
  1. Planetary Rings
      • Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus have rings.
      • These rings are belts of small debris.
      • Visible from Earth using powerful telescopes.
  1. Terminology Origins
      • "Sol" in Roman mythology means "Sungod".
      • "Solar" means "related to the sun".
      • The sun's family is termed the solar system.
      • The word "Geography" originates from Greek:
        • "ge" means "earth".
        • "graphia" means "writing".
  1. Astronomy
      • Study of celestial bodies and their movements.
      • Astronomers are those who study these bodies.
      • Famous ancient Indian astronomer: Aryabhatta.
        • Claimed moon and planets shine due to reflected sunlight.
      • Present-day astronomers explore the universe.
  1. Speed of Light
      • Travels at about 300,000 km/second.
      • Sunlight takes approximately eight minutes to reach Earth.
  1. Moon Exploration
      • Neil Armstrong was the first human to step on the moon on 20 July 1969.
      • (Task for reader) Check if any Indian has landed on the moon.
  1. Satellites
      • Celestial bodies that orbit planets, similar to how planets orbit the sun.
      • Human-made Satellites: Artificial bodies designed for gathering data or communication.
        • Launched by rockets and placed in Earth's orbit.
      • Indian satellites include INSAT, IRS, EDUSAT, etc.
Chapter 2 - Globe: Latitudes and Longitudes
Introduction
Earth's Structure and Latitude
  1. Earth's Shape
      • Not a perfect sphere.
      • Slightly flattened at the North and South Poles and bulges in the middle.
  1. Globe
      • Miniature model of Earth.
      • Represents countries, continents, and oceans accurately.
      • Rotatable, mimicking Earth's rotation.
      • Axis: Imaginary line in the globe passing through North and South Poles.
      • Earth rotates around its imaginary axis.
  1. Equator
      • The imaginary line divides Earth into two equal halves: Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
      • Represents zero-degree latitude.
  1. Latitudes
      • Parallel circles from the equator up to the poles.
      • Measured in degrees.
      • Equator: 0° latitude.
      • North Pole: 90° North latitude.
      • South Pole: 90° South latitude.
      • Parallels north of the equator: North latitudes (denoted as 'N').
      • Parallels south of the equator: South latitudes (denoted as 'S').
  1. Examples
      • Chandrapur, Maharashtra: 20° N latitude.
      • Belo Horizonte, Brazil: 20° S latitude.
  1. Size of Parallels
      • As we move away from the equator, the size of the parallels of latitude decreases.
Important Parallels of Latitude
  1. Equator
      • Located at 0°.
      • Divides Earth into Northern and Southern Hemispheres.
  1. Poles
      • North Pole: 90°N.
      • South Pole: 90°S.
  1. Tropics
      • Tropic of Cancer: 23½° N in the Northern Hemisphere.
      • Tropic of Capricorn: 23½° S in the Southern Hemisphere.
  1. Circles
      • Arctic Circle: Located 66½° north of the equator.
      • Antarctic Circle: Located 66½° south of the equator.
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The Heat Zones of the Earth
  1. Torrid Zone
      • Location: Between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn.
      • Characteristics:
        • Mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least once a year.
        • Receives maximum heat.
  1. Temperate Zones
      • Location:
        • Northern Hemisphere: Between Tropic of Cancer and Arctic Circle.
        • Southern Hemisphere: Between Tropic of Capricorn and Antarctic Circle.
      • Characteristics:
        • Mid-day sun never shines directly overhead.
        • Moderate temperatures due to angled sun rays.
  1. Frigid Zones
      • Location:
        • Northern Hemisphere: Between the Arctic Circle and the North Pole.
        • Southern Hemisphere: Between the Antarctic Circle and the South Pole.
      • Characteristics:
        • Very cold temperatures.
        • Sun rays are always slanting, resulting in less heat.
What are Longitudes?
  1. Introduction
      • Longitudes help in pinpointing the exact location of a place on Earth, combined with latitudes.
      • Example: Two places can share a latitude but can be far apart without specifying longitude.
  1. Meridians of Longitude
      • Lines of reference running from the North Pole to the South Pole.
      • Measured in 'degrees of longitude', further divided into minutes and seconds.
      • Unlike latitudes, all meridians are of equal length.
      • Distance between them decreases as one moves towards the poles.
  1. Prime Meridian
      • Passes through Greenwich, where the British Royal Observatory is located.
      • The value is 0° longitude.
      • Count starts from this meridian, 180° eastward and 180° westward.
      • Divides Earth into Eastern Hemisphere and Western Hemisphere.
      • Locations are marked as 'E' for east and 'W' for west of this meridian.
      • Note: 180° East and 180° West meridians align on the same line.
  1. Locating Places Using Grids
      • By combining parallels of latitude and meridians of longitude, one can pinpoint any location.
      • Example: Dhubri in Assam is at 26° N latitude and 90° E longitude.
      • Grids with vertical (longitudes) and horizontal (latitudes) lines help in visualizing and finding locations.
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Longitude and Time
  1. Measuring Time
      • Best measured using the movement of the Earth, moon, and planets.
      • Sun's rise and set serve as natural time-keepers.
  1. Local Time
      • Determined by the sun's shadow:
        • Shortest shadow at noon.
        • Longest at sunrise and sunset.
  1. Greenwich Mean Time (GMT)
      • When the sun is highest at the Prime Meridian in Greenwich, it's noon there.
      • Earth rotates from west to east:
        • Places east of Greenwich are ahead in time.
        • Places west of Greenwich are behind in time.
  1. Calculating Time Difference
      • Earth rotates 360° in 24 hours.
        • 15° every hour.
        • 1° every 4 minutes.
      • Example:
        • 15° east of Greenwich is 1 hour ahead of GMT.
        • 15° west of Greenwich is 1 hour behind GMT.
      • At 180° from Greenwich, there's a 12-hour difference.
  1. Local Time and Watches
      • Watches can be set to show 12 o'clock when the sun is at its highest.
      • This provides the local time for that place.
      • Places on the same longitude have the same local time.
Why do we have Standard Time?
  1. Need for Standard Time
      • Local times vary across meridians, causing discrepancies.
      • Essential for synchronizing activities, e.g., train timetables.
      • A central meridian's local time is chosen as the standard for a country.
  1. India's Standard Time
      • India uses 82½° E as its standard meridian.
      • Known as the Indian Standard Time (IST).
      • The difference between the local times of Dwarka (Gujarat) and Dibrugarh (Assam) is about 1 hour 45 minutes.
  1. Time Difference: India and England
      • Example: A cricket match starts at 2 p.m. in London.
      • India (82°30'E) is 5 hours 30 minutes ahead of GMT.
      • Thus, 2 p.m. in London is 7:30 p.m. in India.
  1. Countries with Multiple Standard-Times
      • Some countries, due to vast longitudinal extent, have multiple standard times.
      • Example: Russia has eleven standard times.
  1. Global Time Zones
      • Earth is divided into 24 time zones, each covering 15° of longitude.
      • Each time zone represents a difference of one hour.
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Chapter 3 - Motions of the Earth
Earth's Motion and Seasons
  1. Earth's Motions
      • Rotation: Movement of Earth on its axis.
        • Takes about 24 hours.
        • Causes day and night.
        • If Earth didn't rotate: one-half would be in perpetual daylight and warmth, the other in continuous darkness and cold.
      • Revolution: Movement of Earth around the sun in an elliptical orbit.
        • Takes 365¼ days (1 year).
        • Every 4 years, the extra ¼ day is combined to make a leap year with 366 days.
        • Responsible for changing seasons.
  1. Earth's Tilt and Seasons
      • Earth’s axis is tilted at 66½° to its orbital plane.
      • Seasons result from Earth's tilt and its revolution around the sun.
  1. Key Seasonal Positions
      • Summer Solstice (21st June)
        • Northern Hemisphere tilted towards the sun.
        • Direct sunlight on Tropic of Cancer.
        • The longest day in the Northern Hemisphere, the shortest night.
        • Reverse in the Southern Hemisphere (winter season).
      • Winter Solstice (22nd December)
        • Southern Hemisphere tilted towards the sun.
        • Direct sunlight on Tropic of Capricorn.
        • The longest day in the Southern Hemisphere, the shortest night.
        • Reverse in the Northern Hemisphere (winter season).
      • Equinoxes (21st March & 23rd September)
        • Direct rays on the equator.
        • Equal day and night across the globe.
        • March: Spring in the Northern Hemisphere, autumn in the Southern.
        • September: Autumn in the Northern Hemisphere, spring in the Southern.
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Chapter 4 - Maps
Introduction
Maps and Their Importance
  1. Limitations of a Globe
      • Useful for studying the Earth as a whole.
      • Not practical for a detailed study of smaller regions like countries, states, or towns.
  1. Maps: An Overview
      • A representation of the Earth's surface or part of it on a flat surface.
      • Drawn according to a scale.
      • Offer more detailed and specific information compared to a globe.
  1. Types of Map Outputs
      • Single Maps: Show specific areas with certain details.
      • Atlas: A collection of maps.
        • Varying sizes and scales.
        • Can contain extensive information, equivalent to a detailed book.
  1. Advantages of Maps
      • Provide detailed information.
      • Can represent specific regions, allowing for focused studies.
Types of Maps
Types of Maps and Their Components
  1. Types of Maps 1.1. Physical Maps (Relief Maps)
      • Display natural features.
      • Include mountains, plateaus, plains, rivers, oceans, etc.
      1.2. Political Maps
      • Showcase human-made divisions.
      • Display cities, towns, villages, countries, state boundaries, etc.
      1.3. Thematic Maps
      • Focus on specific information or themes.
      • Examples: road maps, rainfall maps, forest distribution maps, industry maps, etc.
      • Have specific titles based on the information they present.
  1. Components of Maps 2.1. Distance: Represents scale to understand actual distance on the ground. 2.2. Direction: Indicates orientation (North, South, East, West, etc.). 2.3. Symbol: Icons or signs used to represent specific features or data on the map.
Distance
Understanding Map Distance and Scale
  1. Concept of Scale on Maps 1.1. Maps are reduced representations of the world or a part of it. 1.2. Scale refers to the ratio between the actual distance on the ground and the distance depicted on the map. 1.3. Scales ensure accurate distance representation between places on maps.
  1. Examples of Scale 2.1. If 10 km on the ground is represented by 2 cm on a map, the scale is:
      • 1 cm on the map = 5 km on the ground (1 cm: 5 km).
  1. Types of Scales 3.1. Small Scale Maps
      • Used for depicting large areas, e.g., continents or countries.
      • Example: 5 cm on the map represents 500 km on the ground. 3.2. Large Scale Maps
      • Used for showing smaller areas in detail, e.g., towns or villages.
      • Example: 5 cm on the map represents 500 meters on the ground. 3.3. Comparison
      • Large-scale maps provide more detailed information than small-scale maps.
Direction
Understanding Map Directions
  1. Direction Indication on Maps 1.1. Most maps have an arrow with the letter 'N' to indicate the North direction. 1.2. This is known as the north line.
  1. Major Cardinal Points 2.1. There are four major directions:
      • North (N)
      • South (S)
      • East (E)
      • West (W)
  1. Intermediate Directions 3.1. These give more precision in determining direction:
      • North-East (NE)
      • South-East (SE)
      • South-West (SW)
      • North-West (NW)
  1. Using a Compass 4.1. A compass is a tool that helps find directions. 4.2. The magnetic needle of a compass always points towards the north-south direction.
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Symbols
Understanding Map Symbols
  1. Introduction to Symbols 1.1. Symbols represent actual features on the ground in a simplified manner on maps. 1.2. They convey information compactly, making maps easier to read.
  1. Why Symbols are Used 2.1. Actual shapes and sizes of features (like buildings, bridges, trees) are not feasible to draw to scale on maps. 2.2. Symbols offer a universal language understood globally.
  1. Conventional Symbols 3.1. International agreement exists on the use of certain symbols. 3.2. These universally recognized symbols are termed "conventional symbols."
  1. Colors in Maps 4.1. Blue: Represents water bodies. 4.2. Brown: Denotes mountains. 4.3. Yellow: Used for plateaus. 4.4. Green: Indicates plains.
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Sketch
Understanding Sketch Maps
  1. Definition of Sketch 1.1. A drawing based primarily on memory and direct observation. 1.2. Not drawn to scale.
  1. Purpose and Use 2.1. Provides a quick, rough representation of an area. 2.2. Useful for showing locations relative to other places without exact measurements. 2.3. Example: Guiding someone to a destination using a basic drawing of landmarks and paths.
Plan
Understanding Plans
  1. Definition of Plan 1.1. A drawing of a small area. 1.2. Created on a large scale.
  1. Purpose and Use 2.1. Provides detailed information about smaller spaces. 2.2. Helpful in understanding specific dimensions, like the length and breadth of a room. 2.3. Distinguished from maps by the level of detail due to the larger scale.
Chapter 5 - Major Domains of the Earth
Introduction
Components of Earth's Surface
  1. Earth's Significance 1.1. Only one planet is known to support life. 1.2. Contains life-sustaining elements: land, water, and air.
  1. Main Components of Earth's Surface 2.1. Lithosphere
      • The solid portion of the earth.
      • The ground we live on. 2.2. Atmosphere
      • Gaseous layer surrounding the earth.
      • Contains gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide. 2.3. Hydrosphere
      • Covers the majority of the earth's surface.
      • Consists of water in all its forms: ice, water, and water vapor.
  1. Biosphere 3.1. Confluence of lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere. 3.2. Narrow zone containing all forms of life.
Lithosphere
  1. Definition 1.1. The solid portion of the earth. 1.2. Comprises earth’s crust rocks and soil layers with essential nutrients.
  1. Divisions of Earth's Surface 2.1. Continents
      • Large landmasses. 2.2. Ocean Basins
      • Vast water bodies.
      • All oceans are interconnected.
  1. Sea Level 3.1. Constant and uniform across the world. 3.2. Used as reference (0 mark) for measuring elevation on land.
  1. Landmarks 4.1. Highest Point: Mt. Everest at 8,848 meters above sea level. 4.2. Deepest Point: Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean at 11,022 meters depth.
Note: The depth of the sea (Mariana Trench) surpasses the height of the tallest mountain (Mt. Everest).
Continents
  1. Introduction 1.1. Seven major continents. 1.2. Separated by vast water bodies. 1.3. Majority of landmass in the Northern Hemisphere.
  1. Asia 2.1. Largest continent (1/3 of total land area). 2.2. Eastern Hemisphere. 2.3. Crossed by the Tropic of Cancer. 2.4. Eurasia = Combined landmass of Europe + Asia.
  1. Europe 3.1. Smaller than Asia. 3.2. West of Asia. 3.3. The Arctic Circle passes through it.
  1. Africa 4.1. Second largest continent. 4.2. Equator runs almost centrally. 4.3. Only continent crossed by Tropic of Cancer, Equator, and Tropic of Capricorn. 4.4. The Sahara Desert (largest hot desert) and Nile River (longest river) are located here.
  1. North America 5.1. Third largest continent. 5.2. Connected to South America by the Isthmus of Panama. 5.3. Completely in the Northern and Western Hemisphere. 5.4. Surrounded by three oceans.
  1. South America 6.1. Mostly in the Southern Hemisphere. 6.2. Bordered by two oceans. 6.3. Features the Andes (longest mountain range) and Amazon (largest river).
  1. Australia 7.1. Smallest continent. 7.2. Entirely in the Southern Hemisphere. 7.3. An "island continent".
  1. Antarctica 8.1. Located in the Southern Hemisphere. 8.2. Contains the South Pole. 8.3. Covered in thick ice sheets. 8.4. No permanent human settlements. 8.5. Research stations present, including India's Maitri and Bharati.
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Hydrosphere
  1. Introduction 1.1. Earth is termed the "blue planet". 1.2. Earth's surface: 71% water, 29% land.
  1. Composition of the Hydrosphere 2.1. Contains water in all forms: 2.1.1. Running water (oceans, rivers, lakes). 2.1.2. Ice (glaciers). 2.1.3. Underground water. 2.1.4. Water vapor in the atmosphere.
  1. Distribution of Earth's Water 3.1. Over 97% of oceans (salty and not suitable for human consumption). 3.2. Majority of remaining water: 3.2.1. Ice sheets and glaciers. 3.2.2. Underground reserves. 3.3. Only a small fraction is available as fresh water for human use.
  1. Key Insight 4.1. Despite vast amounts of water, there's a significant shortage of usable fresh water.
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Oceans
  1. Overview 1.1. Oceans: Major component of the hydrosphere. 1.2. Key movements in oceans: Waves, tides, and ocean currents.
  1. Major Oceans
      2. 2.1. Pacific Ocean 2.1.1. Largest ocean, covering one-third of the earth. 2.1.2. Deepest part: Mariana Trench. 2.1.3. Shape: Almost circular. 2.1.4. Surrounded by: Asia, Australia, and North and South America.
      2.2. Atlantic Ocean 2.2.1. Second largest, 'S' shaped. 2.2.2. Borders: North and South America (west), Europe and Africa (east). 2.2.3. Features: Highly indented coastline with many natural harbors and ports. Busiest ocean for commerce.
      2.3. Indian Ocean 2.3.1. Named after India. 2.3.2. Shape: Almost triangular. 2.3.3. Bordered by: Asia (north), Africa (west), and Australia (east).
      2.4. Southern Ocean 2.4.1. Surrounds Antarctica. 2.4.2. Extends up to 60 degrees south latitude.
      2.5. Arctic Ocean 2.5.1. Located within the Arctic Circle, surrounds the North Pole. 2.5.2. Connection to Pacific: Bering Strait. 2.5.3. Bordered by the northern coasts of North America and Eurasia.
Atmosphere
  1. Overview 1.1. Atmosphere: Thin blanket of air surrounding the Earth. 1.2. Importance: Provides breathable air, and protection from harmful sun's rays.
  1. Extent and Layers 2.1. Extends up to about 1,600 km above Earth's surface. 2.2. Layers: 2.2.1. Troposphere (closest to Earth) 2.2.2. Stratosphere 2.2.3. Mesosphere 2.2.4. Thermosphere 2.2.5. Exosphere (farthest from Earth)
  1. Composition 3.1. Main gases: Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen (21%). 3.2. Trace gases: Carbon dioxide, Argon, etc. (1% combined). 3.3. Importance of gases: 3.3.1. Oxygen: Essential for respiration. 3.3.2. Nitrogen: Aids growth of living organisms. 3.3.3. Carbon dioxide: Absorbs heat, essential for plant growth.
  1. Properties and Effects 4.1. Density: Max at sea level; decreases with altitude. 4.1.1. Climbers at high altitudes need oxygen cylinders due to reduced density. 4.2. Temperature: Decreases with altitude. 4.3. Atmospheric Pressure: Varies across regions. 4.3.1. Wind: Movement of air from high to low-pressure areas.
Biosphere: The Domain of Life
  1. Definition 1.1. Biosphere: Narrow zone where land, water, and air interact. 1.2. Unique zone where life exists on Earth.
  1. Life in Biosphere 2.1. Contains organisms varying from microbes to large mammals. 2.2. All life forms, including humans, depend on the biosphere for survival. 2.3. Broad divisions: Plant kingdom and Animal kingdom.
  1. Interaction with Earth's Domains 3.1. Biosphere interacts with lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. 3.2. Human activities, like deforestation, can lead to environmental issues like soil erosion. 3.3. Natural calamities, e.g., earthquakes, can alter the Earth's surface (e.g., Tsunami leading to submergence in parts of Andaman & Nicobar).
  1. Environmental Concerns 4.1. Waste discharge pollutes water bodies, affecting life and making water non-potable. 4.2. Industrial emissions, vehicular discharges, and thermal power plants release pollutants. 4.3. Increased CO2 levels result in global warming. 4.4. Need for sustainable resource use to maintain balance among lithosphere, atmosphere, and hydrosphere.
Chapter 6 - Our Country: India
Introduction
  1. Geographical Boundaries 1.1. North: Himalayas 1.2. West: Arabian Sea 1.3. East: Bay of Bengal 1.4. South: Indian Ocean
  1. Size and Extent 2.1. Area: Approximately 3.28 million sq. km. 2.2. North-South extent: Ladakh to Kanyakumari (approx. 3,200 km) 2.3. East-West extent: Arunachal Pradesh to Kuchchh (approx. 2,900 km)
  1. Diversity 3.1. Landforms: Mountains, deserts, plains, plateaus, coasts, islands. 3.2. Varied climate, vegetation, and wildlife. 3.3. Rich in language and culture.
  1. Unity in Diversity 4.1. Traditions that unify diverse cultures and regions.
  1. Population 5.1. Over 120 crores (as of 2011). 5.2. Second most populous country, after China.
Locational Settings
  1. Hemispherical Location 1.1. Located in the northern hemisphere. 1.2. Tropic of Cancer (23°30'N) divides India almost halfway.
  1. Latitudinal and Longitudinal Extent 2.1. Latitude: Extends between 8°4'N and 37°6'N. 2.2. Longitude: Extends between 68°7'E and 97°25'E. 2.3. Belongs to the eastern hemisphere.
  1. Time Differences 3.1. Due to a longitudinal extent of 29°, there's a time difference of about 2 hours between the eastern and western extremities. 3.2. Sun rises 2 hours earlier in Arunachal Pradesh compared to Gujarat.
  1. Indian Standard Time (IST) 4.1. Local time changes by 4 minutes for every degree of longitude. 4.2. The Standard Meridian of India: 82°30'E longitude. 4.3. This meridian is used to determine IST.
India’s Neighbors
  1. Land Boundaries 1.1. India shares its land boundaries with seven countries. 1.2. Note: The names of these countries are to be derived from Figure 6.1. 1.3. Some of these countries are landlocked (do not have access to any ocean or sea).
  1. Island Neighbours 2.1. Sri Lanka and Maldives are island neighbors to the south of India. 2.2. Sri Lanka is separated from India by the Palk Strait.
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Political and Administrative Divisions
  1. Overview 1.1. India is a vast country with a complex administrative structure.
  1. Divisions 2.1. India is divided into: - 28 states - 8 Union Territories 2.2. The reference for specific states and territories can be found in Appendix I.
  1. Capital 3.1. Delhi serves as the national capital of India.
  1. Formation Basis 4.1. States in India have primarily been formed based on linguistic considerations
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Physical Divisions
  1. Diversity
      • India possesses diverse physical features including mountains, plateaus, plains, coasts, and islands.
  1. Himalayas ("Him+alaya" = 'the abode of snow') 2.1. Located in the north. 2.2. Divided into three main parallel ranges:
      • Great Himalaya (Himadri): Contains the world's highest peaks.
      • Middle Himalaya (Himachal): Houses many popular hill stations.
      • Shiwalik: Southernmost Himalayan range.
  1. Northern Indian Plains 3.1. Located south of the Himalayas. 3.2. Formed by alluvial deposits of rivers: Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra and their tributaries. 3.3. Fertile land suitable for agriculture, hence densely populated.
  1. Great Indian Desert
      • Located in the western part of India, characterized by its dry, hot, sandy landscape.
  1. Peninsular Plateau 5.1. Triangular in shape, south of the northern plains. 5.2. Contains ranges like Aravali, Vindhyas, and Satpuras. 5.3. Rivers like Narmada and Tapi flow through here and are west-flowing. 5.4. Bordered by Western Ghats (Sahyadris) in the west and Eastern Ghats in the east. 5.5. Plateau is mineral-rich, particularly coal and iron ore.
  1. Coastal Plains 6.1. Western Coastal Plains: Narrow region west of the Western Ghats. 6.2. Eastern Coastal Plains: Broader and home to rivers like Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, and Kaveri which form deltas.
  1. Islands 7.1. Lakshadweep Islands: Coral islands in the Arabian Sea, off Kerala. 7.2. Andaman and Nicobar Islands: Southeast of the mainland in the Bay of Bengal, impacted by the 2004 Tsunami.
  1. Tsunami
      • A massive sea wave caused by an underwater earthquake. The 2004 Tsunami affected parts of India's coastline and islands.
Additional Concepts
Key Geographic Concepts
  1. Peninsula
      • A landform surrounded by water on three sides.
  1. Time Zones in Large Countries 2.1. Countries stretching extensively from east to west have multiple time zones. 2.2. Examples:
      • USA: 7 time zones.
      • Canada: 6 time zones.
      • Russia: [Refer to your previous notes or resources to recall the number of time zones].
  1. Alluvial Deposits
      • Very fine soils are transported and deposited by rivers in river basins.
  1. Tributary
      • A river or stream that discharges its water into a main river from either side.
  1. Delta Formation 5.1. Formed at the mouth of a river (where the river meets the sea). 5.2. Sundarbans Delta: The World's largest delta formed by the Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers. It's triangular in shape.
  1. Corals 6.1. Skeletons of tiny marine animals called Polyps. 6.2. When polyps die, their skeletons remain. New polyps grow on these skeletons, leading to the formation of coral islands. 6.3. Coral Islands: Formed by the continuous growth and accumulation of polyp skeletons.
 
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