✅General Concepts in History - Class 10: India and the Contemporary World - II
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✅General Concepts in History - Class 10: India and the Contemporary World - II
Section 1 - Events and Processes
Chapter 1 - The Rise of Nationalism in Europe
Introduction
Nationalism in Nineteenth-Century Europe
1. Frédéric Sorrieu's Vision (1848)
Sorrieu, a French artist, visualized a world of 'democratic and social Republics'.
Created a series of four prints depicting this dream.
Fig. 1:
Shows people from Europe and America marching towards the statue of Liberty.
Liberty is personified as a female figure with the torch of Enlightenment and the Charter of the Rights of Man.
Absolutist institution symbols are shattered in the foreground.
Distinct nations are identifiable by flags and national costumes.
Leading the march: United States and Switzerland (already nation-states).
France with the tricolour is next, followed by Germany with the black, red, and gold flag. Germany was not yet a united nation.
Other nations included Austria, Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary, and Russia.
The heavens depict Christ, saints, and angels symbolizing global fraternity.
2. Emergence of Nationalism
Nineteenth-century Europe witnessed the rise of nationalism.
This led to the creation of nation-states replacing the multi-national dynastic empires.
Nation-state:
A modern state with centralized power over a defined territory.
Citizens have a sense of common identity and shared history.
This common identity was formed through struggles, actions of leaders, and common people.
3. Concept of the Nation-State
Not just rulers, but majority citizens feel a sense of shared history or descent.
This sense of nationhood didn't exist always but was built through various efforts and events.
Conclusion
The chapter aims to explore how nation-states and nationalism evolved in nineteenth-century Europe, marking a significant shift in the political and mental landscape of the continent.
The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation
Nationalism in France and Its Spread
1. French Revolution (1789) and Nationalism
The Revolution was the first clear manifestation of nationalism.
Sovereignty shifted from monarchy to the French citizens.
People, not the monarch, would shape the nation's destiny.
2. Measures to Foster Collective Identity
Introduction of la patrie (fatherland) and le citizen (citizen) for a united community with equal rights.
The Tricolour flag replaced the royal standard.
Estates General became the National Assembly.
Adoption of new hymns, oaths, and commemorations in the name of the nation.
Centralized administration with uniform laws, abolition of internal customs, and a uniform measurement system.
Promotion of Parisian French as the nation's common language.
3. France's Mission
French believed it was their duty to liberate Europeans from despotism and help them become nations.
Jacobin clubs, inspired by French events, were set up across Europe, promoting these ideas.
4. Role of French Armies
With revolutionary wars, French armies carried nationalism beyond France.
Regions under French control saw many reforms similar to those in France.
5. Napoleon and His Reforms
Napoleon destroyed democracy but made administration more rational and efficient.
Introduced the Napoleonic Code (Civil Code of 1804):
Abolished birthright privileges.
Ensured equality before the law.
Secured property rights.
This code was spread to areas under French control.
Administrative improvements: abolished feudal system, serfdom, and guild restrictions; improved transport and communication.
6. Impact on Local Populations
Mixed reactions to French rule in conquered areas.
Initial enthusiasm in places like Holland, Switzerland, Brussels, Mainz, Milan, and Warsaw.
Hostility grew due to increased taxes, censorship, forced conscription, and lack of political freedom.
Liberal middle classes demanded national unification and constitutionalism.
German National Assembly (18 May 1848): Drafted a constitution for a German nation; rejected by King of Prussia.
Women's Role and Rights: Active participation but denied suffrage rights during assembly elections.
6. Post-1848 Scenario
While conservative forces suppressed liberal movements in 1848, they couldn't restore the old order.
Concessions:
Monarchs started offering concessions to liberal-nationalist revolutionaries.
Serfdom and bonded labor were abolished in Central and Eastern Europe.
The Habsburgs granted more autonomy to the Hungarians in 1867.
These notes encapsulate the rise of liberal-nationalist revolutions in Europe post-1815, the role of culture in fostering nationalism, the socio-economic challenges of the 1830s, and the significant revolutions of 1848 and their aftermath.
The Making of Germany and Italy
Nationalism in Europe (Post-1848)
1. Shift in Nationalism
Post-1848, nationalism moved away from democracy and revolution.
Used by conservatives to bolster state power and dominate Europe.
2. German Unification
Before Unification:
Nationalist feelings among middle-class Germans.
Efforts in 1848 to unite the German confederation into a nation-state.
Suppressed by monarchy, military, and Prussian landowners (Junkers).
Unification Process:
Prussia took leadership for national unification.
Otto von Bismarck led the Prussian army and bureaucracy.
Three wars (with Austria, Denmark, and France) ensured Prussian victory.
In 1871, Prussian king, William I, proclaimed German Emperor at Versailles.
Emphasis on modernizing currency, banking, legal, and judicial systems.
3. Italian Unification
Before Unification:
Italy was fragmented into several dynastic states and parts of the Habsburg Empire.
Seven distinct states existed; only Sardinia-Piedmont was ruled by an Italian princely house.
Varied regional dialects and no unified Italian language.
Unification Process:
Giuseppe Mazzini proposed a unitary Italian Republic.
Sardinia-Piedmont took charge of unification under King Victor Emmanuel II.
Chief Minister Cavour formed an alliance with France.
Sardinia-Piedmont defeated Austrian forces in 1859.
Giuseppe Garibaldi's volunteers unified South Italy.
In 1861, Victor Emmanuel II was proclaimed king of united Italy.
4. The Case of Britain
Formation of British Nation-State:
The formation was gradual, not due to sudden upheaval.
British nation did not exist before the eighteenth century; its primary identities were English, Welsh, Scot, or Irish.
English influence grew over other nations.
English parliament became dominant after seizing power in 1688.
Act of Union (1707) formed the ‘United Kingdom of Great Britain’, leading to England's dominance.
Scotland:
British identity led to the suppression of Scottish culture and institutions.
Scottish Highlanders faced repression; forbidden to use the Gaelic language and national dress.
Ireland:
Deeply divided between Catholics and Protestants.
English supported Protestant dominance.
Catholic revolts suppressed.
Incorporation into the United Kingdom in 1801 after a failed revolt.
English culture promoted, subduing older nations.
Map 1
Map 2
Map 3
Visualizing the Nation
Representation of Nations through Personification
Nations were often personified as female figures in 18th and 19th-century art.
This personification didn't represent specific women but symbolized the abstract idea of the nation.
French Revolution & Allegory
During the French Revolution, female allegories represented ideals:
Liberty was depicted with a red cap or broken chain.
Justice was visualized as a blindfolded woman with weighing scales.
National Symbols in the 19th Century
France:
The female allegory was named 'Marianne', symbolizing the people's nation.
Attributes: red cap, tricolour, cockade.
Marianne's statues were public reminders of national unity, and her images appeared on coins and stamps.
Germany:
The nation was represented by 'Germania'.
Symbolic attribute: a crown of oak leaves, representing heroism.
Nationalism and Imperialism
Nationalism in the Late 19th Century
Nationalism evolved from its idealistic, liberal-democratic sentiment in the early 19th century to a narrow, often aggressive ideology.
Major European powers used the nationalist aspirations of subject peoples to further their imperialistic goals.
The Balkan Crisis
The Balkans, home to various Slavic ethnicities, were largely under the Ottoman Empire.
The decline of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of romantic nationalism made the Balkans volatile.
Various Balkan states declared independence based on historic claims.
The Balkan states were often in conflict, each wanting more territory.
Major European powers also competed in the Balkans, each wanting to extend its influence, leading to multiple wars and eventually the First World War.
Colonial Anti-Imperial Movements
Colonized countries began to resist European imperial domination.
These movements were nationalist and sought to establish independent nation-states.
They were formed in opposition to imperialism, using the idea of collective national unity.
The global conception of nation-states emerged, differing from European ideas but accepting the idea that societies should be organized into nation-states.
Map
Additional Concepts
Representation of Nations through Art
Artists in the 18th and 19th centuries personified nations, often as female figures, giving abstract ideas a concrete form.
French Revolution & Allegories
Female allegories like Liberty and Justice became symbols during the French Revolution.
Marianne was the allegory for France, representing unity. Features included the red cap, tricolor, and cockade.
Germania represented the German nation, symbolizing heroism with a crown of oak leaves.
Nationalism's Evolution in the 19th Century
Nationalism became more narrow and aggressive by the end of the century.
European powers exploited nationalist aspirations for imperialistic goals.
The Balkans Crisis
Comprising diverse Slavic ethnicities, the Balkans were majorly under the Ottoman Empire.
The rise of romantic nationalism and the decline of the Ottoman Empire made the region unstable.
Slavic nationalities sought independence, leading to conflicts and European power rivalries.
Colonial Anti-Imperial Movements
Colonized countries resisted European dominance.
Anti-imperial movements were nationalist, aiming for independent nation-states.
Ernst Renan on Nationhood
Renan defined a nation as a culmination of shared history, sacrifices, and common will.
A nation, according to him, is formed by collective solidarity, not just by language, race, or territory.
Art & Nationalism
Various artworks like paintings and caricatures depicted nationalistic sentiments and political narratives.
Example: The Dream of Worldwide Democratic and Social Republics – The Pact Between Nations by Frédéric Sorrieu in 1848.
Gender & Nationalism
Women's rights in the context of liberty and equality were debated.
While some believed women's roles were confined to homes, others advocated for their political rights and representation.
New Words
Absolutist: A government with no restraints on the power exercised.
Utopian: An ideal society that is unlikely to exist.
Plebiscite: A direct vote by which all people of a region are asked to accept/reject a proposal.
Feminist: Awareness of women's rights based on the belief of gender equality.
Ethnic: Relates to a common racial, tribal, or cultural origin/background.
Allegory: Expressing an abstract idea through a person or thing.
Important Dates
1797: Napoleon invades Italy; beginning of Napoleonic wars.
1814-1815: Fall of Napoleon; Vienna Peace Settlement.
1821: Greek struggle for independence begins.
1848: Revolutions in Europe and the rise of liberal nationalists.
1859-1870: Unification of Italy.
1866-1871: Unification of Germany.
1905: Slav nationalism emerged in the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires.
Chapter 2 - Nationalism in India
Introduction
Introduction
Modern nationalism in Europe associated with nation-states.
New symbols, icons, songs, and ideas redefine community boundaries.
The creation of a new national identity was a long process in most countries.
Connection with Anti-colonial Movement
Modern nationalism in India is connected to the anti-colonial movement.
Oppression under colonialism created a sense of unity.
Different groups and classes experienced colonialism differently.
Unity and Conflict
Congress, under Mahatma Gandhi, tried to unify various groups.
Unity emerged, but not without conflicts.
Growth of Nationalism
The growth of nationalism in India was studied up to the first decade of the 20th century.
In the 1920s: Focus on the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements.
Role of Congress
Explored how Congress tried to develop the national movement.
Different social groups participated in the movement.
Nationalism captured the imagination of people.
The First World War, Khilafat and Non-Cooperation
Impact of World War I
Economic and Political Situation
Increase in defense expenditure.
Rise in taxes: introduction of income tax & raised customs duties.
Price hike: Prices doubled between 1913 and 1918.
Forced recruitment in rural areas.
Post-war Hardships
1918-21: Crop failures causing food shortages.
Influenza epidemic: 12-13 million deaths.
Mahatma Gandhi and Satyagraha
Gandhi returned to India in January 1915.
Concept of Satyagraha
Emphasis on the power of truth.
Non-violence to fight injustice.
Aim to persuade rather than use force.
Satyagraha Movements
1917: Champaran, Bihar against oppressive plantation system.
1917: Kheda, Gujarat for revenue relaxation.
1918: Ahmedabad for cotton mill workers.
Rowlatt Act and Consequences
Rowlatt Act (1919)
Passed hurriedly, gave the government powers to suppress political activities.
Allowed detention without trial for two years.
Response and Repression
Nationwide satyagraha was launched by Gandhi.
Hartal on 6 April 1919.
Rallies, strikes, and shop closures.
Gandhi was barred from Delhi, and local leaders were arrested.
Jallianwalla Bagh incident on 13 April: Massacre by General Dyer.
North India: Strikes, clashes, attacks on government buildings.
Brutal government repression: Humiliations, floggings, bombings.
The movement was called off by Gandhi.
Unification of Hindus and Muslims
Khilafat Issue
Post WWI: Ottoman Turkey defeated.
Rumors of the harsh treaty on Ottoman emperor (Khalifa).
Khilafat Committee was formed in Bombay, in March 1919.
United Mass Action
Gandhi saw the potential to unite Muslims in the national movement.
Non-cooperation movement proposed in support of Khilafat & swaraj.
Why Non-cooperation?
Gandhi's View
British rule was established and sustained due to Indian cooperation.
Non-cooperation would lead to the collapse of British rule.
Unfolding of Movement
Begins with the surrender of titles & boycott of services and foreign goods.
If faced with repression, civil disobedience would be initiated.
Summer 1920: Gandhi and Shaukat Ali mobilize support.
Congress's Concerns
Reluctance to boycott council elections.
Fears of popular violence.
Adoption of Non-Cooperation
Intense debate within Congress.
Compromise reached at Nagpur Congress session, December 1920.
Differing Strands within the Movement
Non-Cooperation-Khilafat Movement (Jan 1921)
Introduction
The movement drew various social groups with distinct aspirations.
Universal call for Swaraj, but diverse interpretations of the term.
Movement in Towns
Middle-Class Participation
Students left government schools/colleges.
Teachers resigned; lawyers abandoned practices.
Council elections were boycotted except in Madras due to the Justice Party's strategy.
Economic Impact
Boycott of foreign goods, especially cloth.
Import of foreign cloth dropped (Rs 102 crore to Rs 57 crore).
Surge in Indian textile mills and handloom production.
Limitations
Khadi is more expensive than mill cloth.
Lack of alternative Indian institutions to replace boycotted British ones.
Rebellion in the Countryside
Peasant Movements
Led by figures like Baba Ramchandra in Awadh.
Against high rents and various cesses imposed by landlords.
Movement for reduction of revenue, abolition of begar, and social boycott of oppressive landlords.
By October 1920, Oudh Kisan Sabha was established.
Peasant movements sometimes took violent forms.
Tribal Movements
Example: Gudem Hills, Andhra Pradesh.
The guerrilla movement against British restrictions on forest access.
Led by Alluri Sitaram Raju, a figure seen as a divine incarnation.
Advocated use of force for Swaraj, contrary to Congress's non-violence.
Swaraj in the Plantations
Plantation Workers in Assam
Sought freedom to move and maintain village connections.
The Inland Emigration Act (1859) restricted their movement.
Many left plantations hoping for Gandhi Raj and land rights.
Workers were caught and beaten by police during their journey.
Diverse Interpretations of Swaraj
Each group envisioned a unique form of swaraj.
Despite local visions, there was a pan-India identification with the larger movement.
Towards Civil Disobedience
Withdrawal of Non-Cooperation Movement & Subsequent Events
Reason for Withdrawal (Feb 1922)
Movement turning violent.
Satyagrahis needed proper training.
Some Congress leaders tired of mass struggles, sought council politics.
Internal debates:
C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru formed Swaraj Party.
Young leaders like Nehru and Bose pressed for full independence.
External Factors Shaping Politics (Late 1920s)
Worldwide economic depression:
Fall in agricultural prices post-1926.
Peasants struggled with revenues due to decreased demand.
Simon Commission:
Constituted by Tory government.
To assess constitutional system in India.
Lacked Indian representation, faced "Go back Simon" protests.
Viceroy Lord Irwin’s Declaration:
Offered vague 'dominion status'.
Proposed a Round Table Conference for constitution discussion.
Culminated with Gandhi making salt, violating law.
Differences from Non-Cooperation Movement:
Not just refusing cooperation but actively breaking laws.
Activities included boycotts, tax refusals, and demonstrations.
Government repression led to violence and mass arrests.
Gandhi-Irwin Pact (5 March 1931):
Gandhi to attend Round Table Conference.
Government to release political prisoners.
Participants & Their Perspectives
Rich Peasants:
Affected by trade depression.
Supported movement for reduced revenues.
Poor Peasants:
Wanted relief from rents.
Supported 'no rent' campaigns.
Business Classes:
Sought freedom from colonial economic policies.
Initial support, but waned post Round Table Conference.
Industrial Workers:
Limited participation.
Strikes and protests against poor conditions.
Women:
Large-scale participation.
Attended marches, made salt, picketed.
Still limited roles within Congress leadership.
Dalits:
Initial aloofness from Congress.
Gandhi advocated for integration and upliftment.
Ambedkar demanded separate electorates, leading to Poona Pact.
Muslims:
Alienation post Non-Cooperation-Khilafat movement.
Concerns about Hindu majority overshadowing Muslim identity.
The Sense of Collective Belonging
Development of Nationalism in India
Basics of Nationalism
Nationalism arises when people believe they belong to the same nation.
Collective unity is realized through shared experiences and cultural elements.
Cultural Processes in Nationalism
History and Fiction: Played a role in creating a sense of national pride and unity.
Folklore and Songs: Helped revive traditional values and pride.
Symbols and Prints: Used to represent and rally behind national ideals.
Symbolism of Bharat Mata
Origin: Created by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay in the 1870s.
Evolution: Depicted as an ascetic, divine figure. Image varied with artists.
Significance: Represented the nation and devotion to her was seen as nationalism.
Revival of Indian Folklore
Objective: Capture the true essence of traditional culture.
Efforts: Recording of folk tales, songs, and myths.
Leaders: Rabindranath Tagore in Bengal; Natesa Sastri in Madras with "The Folklore of Southern India."
Icons and Symbols of Unity
Swadeshi Movement Flag: Tricolour with eight lotuses for provinces and a crescent moon for Hindu-Muslim unity.
Gandhian Flag (1921): Tricolour with spinning wheel symbolizing self-help.
Reinterpretation of History
Objective: Counter British portrayal of Indians as backward.
Focus: Glorious ancient times showcasing India’s achievements.
Challenge: Overemphasis on Hindu past alienated other communities.
Conclusion: Unity and Diversity
Struggle for Freedom: Various groups with different grievances came together.
Role of Congress: Tried to channelize these grievances into organized movements.
Diverse Aspirations: Different meanings of freedom for different people led to intermittent unity and conflict.
Emergence of India: A nation with multiple voices seeking freedom from colonial rule.
Additional Concepts
Indian National Movement
Mass Movements
Mass processions became common during the national movement, symbolizing unity and resistance.
Mahatma Gandhi and Satyagraha
Gandhi led Indian workers in South Africa against racist laws.
Satyagraha is a form of soul-force, emphasizing non-violence and truth.
India embraced the principle of non-violence.
Significant Events
Rowlatt Act Protest (1919): Gandhian hartal against the act led to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
Chauri Chaura Incident (1922): Peaceful demonstration turned violent. Gandhi halted the Non-Cooperation Movement in response.
Simon Commission Protest: Lala Lajpat Rai was assaulted by the British police and later succumbed to his injuries.
Congress Leadership
Leaders included Mahatma Gandhi, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Subhas Chandra Bose.
Advocated for 'Purna Swaraj' or Complete Independence.
Radical Movements
Some believed that non-violence wouldn't win against the British.
The Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA) targeted symbols of British power.
Bhagat Singh, a key figure, emphasized the need for revolution in society.
Women in the Movement
Women actively participated in nationalist processions, symbolizing their role in the freedom struggle.
Communal Tensions
Sir Muhammad Iqbal emphasized the importance of separate electorates for Muslims.
He advocated for communal unity while recognizing distinct communal entities.
Quit India Movement (1942)
Demand for the British to leave India.
Mass participation with hartals, demonstrations, and national slogans.
British took over a year to suppress the movement.
Key Dates
1918-19: UP peasants' distress led by Baba Ramchandra.
April 1919: Gandhian Hartal against Rowlatt Act; Jallianwala Bagh massacre.
January 1921: Launch of Non-Cooperation and Khilafat movement.
February 1922: Chauri Chaura incident.
December 1929: Lahore Congress adopts the demand for 'Purna Swaraj'.
March 1930: Gandhiji begins Civil Disobedience Movement.
1932: Civil Disobedience re-launched.
New Words
Forced recruitment: Colonial state forcing people to join the army.
Boycott: Refusal to deal, associate, or participate as a form of protest.
Picket: Demonstration where entrances to establishments are blocked.
Begar: Forced labor without any payment.
Section 2 - Livelihood, Economies and Societies
Chapter 3 - The Making of a Global World
The Pre-Modern World
The Pre-modern World and Globalization
Introduction to Globalization
Globalization often refers to an economic system from the past 50 years.
Global interconnectedness has deep historical roots.
Historical Interlinking of Societies
Since ancient times, people traveled for knowledge, opportunity, spiritual fulfillment, or to escape persecution.
Goods, money, values, skills, ideas, inventions, and even germs and diseases were exchanged.
Indus Valley civilizations traded with present-day West Asia around 3000 BCE.
Cowries (seashells as currency) from Maldives reached China and East Africa for over a millennia.
Disease spread became evident by the thirteenth century.
Silk Routes Link the World
Silk routes exemplify pre-modern trade and cultural links.
Several silk routes existed, both over land and sea, linking Asia with Europe and northern Africa.
These routes were active since before the Christian Era up to the fifteenth century.
Not just silk, but Chinese pottery, Indian textiles, spices, and precious metals were exchanged.
Trade routes facilitated the spread of religions like Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism.
Food Travels: Spaghetti and Potato
The food showcases long-distance cultural exchange.
Example: Origins of spaghetti and noodles.
Many foods like potatoes, soya, tomatoes, chillies, etc. were introduced to Europe and Asia post the discovery of the Americas.
The introduction of new crops sometimes had profound effects, e.g., potatoes in Europe.
Conquest, Disease, and Trade
World connectivity increased in the sixteenth century with European sailors finding routes to Asia and America.
Europe's entry redirected trade flows.
America's resources began to transform global trade.
Precious metals from America increased Europe's wealth.
European conquest of America was facilitated by diseases like smallpox.
European immigration to America was driven by poverty, hunger, and religious persecution in Europe.
By the eighteenth century, American plantations were producing cotton and sugar for Europe.
China and India, once among the world's richest, saw a shift in their trade dominance as Europe emerged as the trade center.
The Nineteenth Century (1815-1914)
19th Century World: Trade, Technology, and Colonialism
Global Economic Exchanges in the 19th Century
Three types of international economic 'flows':
Trade (primarily in goods like cloth and wheat)
Labor (migration for employment)
Capital (investments over distances)
A World Economy Takes Shape
19th-century Britain shifted from self-sufficiency due to population growth and industrial demand.
Abolition of the 'Corn Laws' led to cheaper food imports and declining domestic agriculture.
As food prices dropped and industrial growth surged, global food production expanded.
Railways, harbors, and settlements were developed for trade, leading to capital flow and labor migration.
Role of Technology
Technological advancements like railways, steamships, and telegraphs transformed the world.
Refrigerated ships revolutionized the meat trade, making meat accessible to the European poor.
Late 19th-century Colonialism
Expanding trade coexisted with the loss of freedoms in colonized societies.
European powers partitioned Africa, with Britain, France, Belgium, Germany, and the US establishing colonies.
Rinderpest and its Impact
Cattle plague in Africa in the 1890s severely impacted livelihoods.
European colonization exploited the situation, monopolizing scarce cattle resources.
Indentured Labour Migration from India
Indian and Chinese laborers worked globally on plantations, mines, and construction.
Indentured labor contracts promised a return to India after five years.
Recruitment often involves misinformation or force.
Post-indenture experiences led to cultural fusions and new global communities.
Indian Entrepreneurs Abroad
Indian bankers and traders financed export agriculture in Asia.
Indian traders expanded their reach globally, setting up trade points at major ports.
Indian Trade, Colonialism, and the Global System
British tariffs reduced Indian cotton imports.
Indian textile exports faced competition in international markets.
India's exports shifted from manufactured goods to raw materials.
Britain utilized India's opium exports to China to finance tea imports from China.
British manufacturers dominated the Indian market, leading to a trade surplus.
India played a pivotal role in the global economy, aiding Britain's multilateral settlement system.
Map 1
Map 2
The Inter-war Economy
The First World War and Its Impact
Wartime Transformations
Fought between the Allies (Britain, France, Russia, US) and Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Turkey).
It was the first modern industrial war.
Used machine guns, tanks, aircraft, and chemical weapons.
Caused by large-scale industry; 9 million dead, 20 million injured.
Restructuring of industries for war-related goods.
The US became an international creditor; many countries took loans from the US.
Post-war Recovery
Britain's Challenges:
Difficulty recapturing dominance in the Indian market and competing with Japan.
Burdened with huge external debts after borrowing from the US.
Economic boom during the war was followed by production contraction and unemployment.
Agricultural Economies in Crisis:
Overproduction, especially in wheat; falling prices led to increased production but further price drops.
Rise of Mass Production and Consumption
USA's Economic Surge:
Shift to mass production in the 1920s.
Henry Ford's assembly line method revolutionized car manufacturing.
Consumer boom: increased car production, refrigerators, washing machines, radios.
The US became the largest overseas lender; boosting European recovery.
The Great Depression (1929-mid 1930s)
Causes:
Agricultural overproduction and falling prices.
Withdrawal of US loans.
The US doubled import duties, impacting world trade.
US Impact:
Banking system collapsed; over 4,000 banks closed, and 110,000 companies collapsed.
Recovery:
By 1935, modest economic recovery began in most industrial countries.
India and the Great Depression
Trade Impact:
India's exports and imports halved between 1928 and 1934.
Agricultural prices in India fell, with wheat prices dropping 50%.
Rural India:
Peasants and farmers suffered due to falling prices and unchanged revenue demands.
Jute producers in Bengal were hit hard with a 60% price drop.
Increased peasant indebtedness.
Urban India:
Those with fixed incomes benefited from falling prices.
Industrial investment grew with tariff protection.
Rebuilding a World Economy: The Post-war Era
The Second World War and Its Aftermath
Overview of the War
Fought between Axis powers (Nazi Germany, Japan, Italy) and Allies (Britain, France, Soviet Union, US).
Lasted for six years, leading to massive devastation and the death of at least 60 million people.
Majorly impacted civilians, with most deaths occurring outside of battlefields.
Post-war Reconstruction Influences
The dominance of the US: Emerged as the top economic, political, and military power in the Western world.
Soviet Union's Rise: Transformed from an agricultural nation to a global superpower.
Bretton Woods Institutions and Post-war Settlement
Key economic lessons post-war:
Need for mass consumption with stable incomes.
Governments needed to control flows of goods, capital, and labor.
Bretton Woods conference (1944) established:
IMF: Managed external surpluses and deficits.
World Bank: Financed post-war reconstruction.
Bretton Woods system was based on fixed exchange rates, pegging national currencies to the US dollar.
Economic Landscape in the Post-war Years
Era of unprecedented growth in trade and incomes for Western nations and Japan.
Spread of technology and enterprise globally.
Developing countries aimed to catch up with advanced nations, investing in modern technology.
Decolonization and Emergence of New Nations
Post-WWII, many colonies gained independence but faced challenges from poverty and the legacies of colonial rule.
Bretton Woods institutions shifted focus to developing countries in the late 1950s.
Newly independent nations remained under the influence of former colonial powers and international agencies.
G-77 was formed to demand a New International Economic Order (NIEO).
End of Bretton Woods and Dawn of 'Globalisation'
By the 1960s, US financial strength waned, leading to the collapse of the fixed exchange rate system.
Shift to borrowing from Western commercial banks for developing countries.
Rise in unemployment in the industrial world from the mid-1970s to the early 1990s.
The shift of MNCs' production to low-wage countries, particularly in Asia.
China's integration into the world economy led to it becoming a major manufacturing hub.
Rapid economic transformations were witnessed in countries like India, China, and Brazil.
Additional Concepts
Trade, Colonialism, and Globalization
Historical Depictions of Trade
Ship Images in Memorials: From the 9th century, ships became common in memorial stones on the western coast, highlighting the importance of oceanic trade.
Silk Route: 8th-century Chinese cave painting showcases the silk route trade.
Venetian Trade: 15th-century depiction of merchants from Venice and the Orient exchanging goods.
Gold Mines: 19th-century transport to Transvaal gold mines after gold discovery in Witwatersrand. South Africa accounted for over 20% of world gold production by the 1890s.
Indentured Labour: 19th-century images depicting Indian indentured laborers in cocoa plantations and for identification.
Notable Historical Events
Irish Potato Famine: From 1845 to 1849, around 1,000,000 people starved in Ireland due to the Great Irish Potato Famine.
Biological Warfare: In 1634, John Winthorp interpreted smallpox among natives as a divine sign clearing colonists' land claims.
East India Company: It was the hub of the company's global operations.
The Great Depression: 1930s event characterized by mass unemployment and poverty.
World War II: Images from 1941 depict Germany's attack on Russia and the devastation of Stalingrad.
Bretton Woods Conference Location: The conference was held at the Mount Washington Hotel.
Modern Economic Concepts
Multinational Corporations (MNCs): Large companies operating in multiple countries. Emerged predominantly in the 1920s, and their expansion was significant in the 1950s and 1960s.
Tariffs and Exchange Rates:
Tariff: A tax imposed on imports.
Exchange Rates: Links national currencies for trade purposes, can be fixed or floating.
New Words
Dissenter: One who refuses to accept established beliefs and practices.
Indentured Labour: A bonded labourer under a contract to work for an employer for a specific amount of time.
Tariff: Tax imposed on a country's imports at the point of entry.
Exchange Rates: They link national currencies for trade purposes.
Fixed Exchange Rates: Rates are fixed, and governments intervene to prevent movements.
Flexible or Floating Exchange Rates: Rates fluctuate based on demand and supply of currencies without government interference.
Dates and Context
1634: John Winthorp's interpretation of smallpox as a divine sign.
1845-1849: The Great Irish Potato Famine.
1870s: Discovery of gold in Witwatersrand and the rush to the region.
1930s: The Great Depression era.
1941: Germany's attack on Russia during World War II.
1950s and 1960s: Significant expansion of MNCs.
Remember: This period showcases a blend of trade, cultural exchanges, and colonial impacts leading to the modern globalization era. It's essential to understand the interconnectedness of events, trade relations, and the emergence of new economic structures.
Chapter 4 - The Age of Industrialization
Introduction
Industrialization: Perceptions and Reality
The Image of Progress
E.T. Paull's Music Book (1900)
Cover titled 'Dawn of the Century' (Fig. 1).
Central figure: Goddess-like angel of progress.
Symbols of progress: railway, camera, machines, printing press, factory.
The Tale of Two Magicians
Trade magazine illustration (Fig. 2).
Aladdin: Represents the East and the past, known for his magical palace.
Modern Mechanic: Symbolizes the West and modernity; creates bridges, ships, towers, and high-rise buildings with modern tools.
Interpretation of Modernity
Modern world linked with:
Rapid technological change.
Innovations and machines.
Railways, steamships, high-rise buildings.
Popular perception: Industrialization is equated with progress and modernity.
Question to ponder: Is the spread of infrastructure a sign of societal development?
Critique and Questions
Origin of these glorified images?
Relationship with ideas of progress.
Is industrialization solely about technological advancement?
Implications of continuous mechanization.
Impact of industrialization on people's lives.
Historical Exploration
To understand industrialization:
Examine the history of industrialization.
Focus on:
Britain: The first industrial nation.
India: Industrial changes under colonial rule.
Before the Industrial Revolution
Understanding Industrialisation
Misconceptions about Industrialisation
Industrialization is often equated with factory growth.
Historically, large-scale industrial production for the international market existed before factories.
Proto-Industrialisation
Term for the phase of industrialization before the rise of factories.
17th-18th centuries: European merchants moved to the countryside.
Supplied money to peasants and artisans for international market production.
Demand grew due to global trade and colonial acquisitions.
Urban crafts and trade guilds limited new business in towns.
The countryside became a new focus: peasants supplemented income through proto-industrial production.
Result: Close relationship between town (merchants) and countryside (production).
Factory Emergence
England's first factories: 1730s.
Rapid multiplication: Late 18th century.
Cotton's Role:
Symbol of the new industrial era.
Production surge in the late 19th century.
Innovations in production processes.
Richard Arkwright's cotton mill brought all processes under one roof.
Improved supervision, quality, and labor regulation.
Pace of Industrial Change
Dynamic Industries: Cotton (until the 1840s), then iron and steel.
Traditional Industries:
New industries couldn't easily displace them.
Even by the 19th end, less than 20% workforce in advanced sectors.
Significant textile output from domestic units.
Non-Mechanised Sectors:
Growth in food processing, building, pottery, etc. through small innovations.
Slow Technological Change:
Expensive, often ineffective new technology.
Example: Steam engine's slow acceptance.
Insight
Mid-19th century typical worker: Craftsperson/laborer, not machine operator.
Hand Labour and Steam Power
Industrialization and Labour in Victorian Britain
Labour Abundance and Industrial Decisions
High labor availability in Victorian Britain due to the influx from the countryside.
Resulted in low wages due to demand-supply dynamics.
Industrialists were hesitant about machines:
High capital investment.
Preferred hand labor for seasonal demand industries like gas works, breweries, and bookbinding.
Many products require human skill:
Machines produced standardized goods.
Demand for intricate designs and specific shapes e.g., 500 varieties of hammers.
Handmade products were symbols of refinement; machine-made goods were often for colonies.
American Contrast
In America, labor shortage led to the preference for mechanical power.
Britain, with abundant labour, relied more on human hands.
Life of the Workers
Job Seeking and Employment:
Job availability is linked to kin and friendship networks.
Many job seekers waited for weeks, sheltering under bridges or in night refuges.
Seasonal work nature led to employment gaps.
Wages and Welfare:
Early 19th-century wage rise.
Real wage value could decrease during times of inflation.
Workers' income was dependent on employment days.
Up to 10% of the urban population is extremely poor; unemployment could rise to 35-75% during slumps.
Technology and Unemployment Fears:
Workers feared job loss due to new tech, e.g., Spinning Jenny led to women attacking these machines.
Post-1840s Urban Development
Increase in building activities in cities.
Infrastructure projects like road widening, railway extensions, drainage, and embankments.
Transport industry employment doubled in the 1840s, and doubled again in the next 30 years.
Industrialization in the Colonies
Industrialization in Colonial India: The Tale of Textiles
The Age of Indian Textiles
Pre-Industrial Dominance:
India was a major player in the international textile market.
High-quality cotton and silk goods were popular worldwide.
Trade Routes:
Land routes: Through Punjab to Afghanistan, eastern Persia, and Central Asia.
Sea routes: Ports like Surat (Gujarat), Masulipatam (Coromandel coast), and Hoogly (Bengal).
Decline of Indian Traders:
By the 1750s, Indian trade networks started declining.
European companies, especially the East India Company, began monopolizing trade.
Traditional ports like Surat and Hoogly decayed, while Bombay and Calcutta rose in prominence.
The Plight of Weavers
East India Company's Control:
After gaining political power in Bengal and Carnatic, the Company established a monopoly over trade.
Introduced gomasthas (supervisors) to directly control weavers.
Implemented a system of advances, tying weavers to the Company.
Conflict and Migration:
Clashes between weavers and gomasthas, due to the latter's arrogant behavior and low payment.
Many weavers abandoned their craft, migrating or turning to agricultural labor.
Manchester's Invasion:
By the early 19th century, demand for Indian textiles started declining.
Britain's growing cotton industry and import duties in Britain reduced Indian exports.
By the 1870s, over 50% of Indian imports were British cotton goods.
Indian weavers couldn't compete with cheap machine-made imports.
Raw Cotton Crisis:
By the 1860s, due to the American Civil War, Britain's cotton supply was disrupted.
India became a major supplier of raw cotton, leading to scarcity and high prices for Indian weavers.
Manchester vs Indian Weavers:
Early 19th century belief was that demand for Indian textiles would always be high.
However, by the 1850s, imported British goods dominated the Indian market.
This was accentuated by Britain's industrial expansion, tariff policies, and colonial control over Indian markets.
By the end of the 19th century, Indian factories further pushed hand-woven textiles out of the market.
Factories Come Up
Industrialization in Colonial India: Entrepreneurs and Workers
Growth of Industries
Initial Mills:
Bombay's first cotton mill (1854), was operational by 1856.
By 1862: Four mills with 94,000 spindles and 2,150 looms.
Jute mills in Bengal from 1855.
Elgin Mill in Kanpur in the 1860s.
The first spinning and weaving mill in Madras began in 1874.
The Early Entrepreneurs
Origin in China Trade:
Many business groups began with the opium trade to China and the tea trade to England.
Accumulated from various trade networks, such as Burma, the Middle East, and East Africa.
Commercial groups within India also contributed, banking money, financing traders, and transferring funds.
Colonial Control and Challenges:
Colonial restrictions limited Indian merchants' scope.
Indian businesses were mostly confined to raw material exports.
European Managing Agencies controlled a significant portion of Indian industries.
Labor and Workers in Industries
Demand for Workers:
1901: 584,000 factory workers.
1946: Over 2,436,000 factory workers.
Sources of Labour:
Mainly from nearby districts.
Peasants and artisans from villages migrated to industrial centers.
Over time, workers traveled from afar for mill jobs.
Challenges in Employment:
Jobs were scarce, even with growing industries.
Entry into mills was often restricted, and controlled by "jobbers" who played crucial roles in recruitment.
Jobbers' Influence:
Trusted workers who recruited new labor.
Assisted newcomers in settling and provided financial aid.
Over time, they gained significant authority and power, often demanding money and gifts for their services.
The Peculiarities of Industrial Growth
Industrialization in Colonial India: Transition and Transformation
European Managing Agencies
Focus: Majorly on products for export, e.g., tea, coffee, mining, indigo, and jute.
Impact: Local industrialists shifted from competing with Manchester goods to producing coarse cotton yarn, later moving to cloth production.
Shift in the Textile Industry
Swadeshi Movement: Pushed for a boycott of foreign cloth, leading to increased domestic production.
Post-WWI Era: Manchester lost its stronghold in the Indian market, and local industrialists captured the home market. This was due to Manchester's inability to modernize and compete globally.
War's Impact on Industry:
WWI led to a surge in demand for Indian industries as British mills were occupied with war production.
Resulted in a boom in industrial production in India.
Factory Industries After the War
Overview: Factory industries grew post-war, but most industries remained small-scale.
Geographical Concentration: 67% of industries were located in Bengal and Bombay.
Workforce Distribution:
Only 5-10% of the industrial labor force worked in registered factories.
The majority worked in small workshops and household units.
Growth of Handicrafts in the 20th Century
Technological Advancements: Introduction of new technologies like looms with a fly shuttle.
Specialized Weaves: Mills couldn't easily replicate specific weaves, ensuring their demand.
Economic Disparities: Demand for coarse cloth fluctuated with the economy, while finer varieties remained stable.
Life of Weavers: Despite the growth, weavers lived challenging lives, often involving the entire household in the production process..
Market for Goods
Consumer Culture and Advertisement in Colonial India
Introduction
British manufacturers aimed to dominate the Indian market.
New products required new consumers, and persuading methods were essential.
Advertisements: A Historical Perspective
Purpose: Make products appear desirable, shape the minds of people, and create new needs.
Presence: Advertisements were prevalent from the start of the industrial age, essential in shaping a new consumer culture.
Manchester's Entry into India
Branding: Manchester goods had labels to mark the place of manufacture and quality.
Texts: Words like 'MADE IN MANCHESTER' aimed to instill confidence in buyers.
Imagery: Labels carried images, often beautifully illustrated.
Usage of Divine Images:
Images of Indian gods and goddesses made the foreign products seem familiar to Indians.
Association with gods was perceived as divine approval.
Calendars as Advertisements
Popularity: Calendars were used by both literates and illiterates, making them an effective medium for advertisements.
Imagery: Like labels, calendars too had images of gods, implying divine endorsement.
Royal Endorsements
Figures of emperors, nawabs, and other important personages were used.
Message: If a product is used or endorsed by royalty, its quality is unquestionable.
Nationalist Message in Advertisements
Indian manufacturers used advertisements to convey swadeshi messages.
Message: If you care for the nation, buy products made by Indians.
Conclusion
The industrial age brought technological changes, factory growth, and a new labor force.
Hand technology and small-scale production remained significant in the industrial landscape.
Advertisement strategies reflected the sociopolitical context of the times.
Map
Additional Concepts
Advertisement and Consumer Culture in Colonial India
Introduction
British manufacturers aimed to capture the Indian market.
Creation of new consumers and market persuasion became essential.
Advertisements and Their Evolution
Purpose: Expand markets, shape consumer preferences, and create new needs.
Historical Presence: Advertisements have been instrumental since the Industrial Age in shaping consumer culture.
Manchester's Approach to the Indian Market
Branding and Labels:
Served as a mark of quality and origin.
Texts like 'MADE IN MANCHESTER' instilled confidence.
Labels carried vivid images, often divine, to resonate with Indian consumers.
Calendars as Advertisements
Used by both literates and illiterates.
Images of gods implied divine endorsement.
Royal Endorsements in Ads
Figures of emperors and nawabs were used to signify quality and trustworthiness.
Nationalism and Advertisements
Swadeshi message: Buy products made by Indians to support the nation.
Role of Advertisements in Consumer Culture
Advertisements shaped perceptions and created new consumer needs.
Various techniques, from divine imagery to nationalist messages, were used.
Visual Representations (Figs. 3 to 28)
Depictions of workers, industries, trade, and advertisements over the years.
Demonstrates the evolution of industry and consumer culture.
New Words Defined:
Orient: Refers to countries east of the Mediterranean, primarily Asia, seen as pre-modern and traditional from a Western perspective.
Proto: Indicates the first or early form of something.
Stapler: A person who sorts wool according to its fiber.
Fuller: A person who gathers cloth by pleating.
Carding: Process of preparing fibers, like cotton or wool, before spinning.
Spinning Jenny: Machine invented by James Hargreaves in 1764 to speed up spinning and reduce labor demand.
Sepoy: British pronunciation for 'spahi', meaning an Indian soldier serving the British.
Fly shuttle: Mechanical device used in weaving. It allows weavers to operate large looms and weave wide pieces of cloth.
Key Dates and Context:
1764: James Hargreaves invents the Spinning Jenny.
1830: Spinning factory illustration shows hundreds of spindles manufacturing thread.
1857: Industrial Manchester illustration depicts chimneys symbolizing the industrial landscape.
1861: Painting showcases workers in an iron works in north-east England.
1868: Underground railway construction in central London demands a surge in workers.
1874: The painting depicts the homeless in London seeking shelter.
1881: Will Thorne's journey to London in search of work.
1925: A Lancashire cotton mill painting.
1928: Gripe Water calendar uses the image of baby Krishna.
1934: Sunlight soap calendar features God Vishnu.
Section 3 - Everyday Life, Culture and Politics
Chapter 5 - Print Culture and the Modern World
Introduction
History and Impact of Print
Introduction to Print
Print is omnipresent in our lives: books, newspapers, calendars, posters, and more.
Printed matter shapes our knowledge and understanding of the world.
Before the prevalence of print, information dissemination was different.
The World Before Print
Print has its own history, deeply interwoven with the shaping of the modern world.
It's crucial to recognize that there existed a time when print was not the primary medium of communication.
Origins of Print
East Asia: The starting point for the development of print technology.
Expansion from East Asia to various parts of the world, including Europe and India.
The Impact of Print
Transformed how knowledge was shared and disseminated.
Brought about socio-cultural changes, influencing public debates, literature, and daily life.
The objective of the Chapter
Understanding the development and journey of print.
Analyzing its transformative impact on society, culture, and the modern world.
The First Printed Books
Print Technology in East Asia
Origins in China
Earliest Print Technology:
Developed in China, Japan, and Korea.
The system of hand printing was initiated in AD 594.
Technique: Rubbing paper against inked woodblocks.
This resulted in the creation of the traditional Chinese ‘accordion book’.
Role of Craftsmen:
Skilled craftsmen duplicated the beauty of calligraphy with high accuracy.
State Involvement:
The imperial state was a major producer of printed materials.
Civil service examination textbooks were printed in large numbers.
Seventeenth Century Diversification:
Print not only for scholar-officials.
Merchants used to print for trade information.
Introduction of fictional narratives, poetry, autobiographies, and plays.
Rise in female readership and publications by women.
Nineteenth Century Changes:
Introduction of Western printing techniques and mechanical presses.
The transition from hand printing to mechanical printing, with Shanghai as the hub.
Print Culture in Japan
Introduction of Print:
Hand-printing technology was brought to Japan by Buddhist missionaries from China around AD 768-770.
Oldest Japanese Book:
Buddhist Diamond Sutra, printed in AD 868.
Diverse Printed Materials:
Textiles, playing cards, paper money, visual materials.
The flourishing of poets, prose writers, and books which were both cheap and plentiful.
Eighteenth-Century Urban Culture:
Illustrated collections portraying urban life, artists, courtesans, and teahouse gatherings.
Libraries and bookstores were abundant with books on diverse topics: women, music, etiquette, cooking, etc.
Print Comes to Europe
The Emergence of Print Technology in Europe
Introduction to European Print
For centuries, Europe received silk, spices, and paper from China via the silk route.
By the 11th century, Chinese paper reached Europe, facilitating manuscript production.
Marco Polo & Woodblock Printing
Marco Polo returned to Italy in 1295 from China with knowledge of woodblock printing.
Italians initiated book production using woodblocks; the technique spread throughout Europe.
However, luxury editions remained handwritten and were mostly for the elite.
Booksellers started organizing manuscript production more efficiently to cater to growing demands, employing multiple scribes.
Challenges with Manuscripts
Manuscripts were:
Expensive to produce.
Time-consuming.
Fragile and hard to handle.
Their limited circulation couldn't meet the rising demand.
Rise of Woodblock Printing
By the early 15th century, Europe adopted woodblock printing for textiles, playing cards, and simple texts.
The need for faster and more affordable text reproduction became evident.
Johann Gutenberg and the Invention of the Printing Press
Background:
Gutenberg from Strasbourg, Germany, adapted existing technologies based on his diverse experiences (olive presses, goldsmithing, mould-making).
The Printing Press:
Modeled after the olive press and utilized molds for casting metal types for alphabets.
Perfected by 1448.
Gutenberg's first printed book was the Bible, producing 180 copies in three years.
Noteworthy Points:
Printed books initially mirrored handwritten manuscripts in appearance and design.
Space was often left in printed books for personalized hand-painted decoration.
Boom in Book Production
Between 1450-1550, printing presses proliferated across Europe.
German printers traveled, sharing their expertise and setting up new presses.
The 15th century witnessed 20 million printed books, which surged to 200 million in the 16th century.
This monumental shift from hand printing to mechanical printing marked the onset of the print revolution.
The Print Revolution and Its Impact
Understanding the Print Revolution
Not just a technological advancement; it reshaped human relationships with knowledge, institutions, and authorities.
Altered perceptions and ushered in novel viewpoints.
A New Reading Public
Emergence and Significance:
The printing press birthed a new reading demographic.
Printing made books more affordable and widely accessible.
Culture and Influence:
Transitioned from elite readership and oral culture to a broader reading public.
Printed material catered to both literate and illiterate (via read-outs).
Printers published popular ballads, folk tales, and illustrated content, blurring the lines between oral and reading cultures.
Religious Debates and the Fear of Print
Wide Circulation and Implications:
Print democratized the spread of ideas, enabling even dissenters to share their viewpoints.
This newfound freedom was met with apprehension by many.
Concerns:
Fear that unrestricted access might propagate rebellious and irreligious sentiments.
Threatened the sanctity of 'valuable' literature.
Religion and Print:
Martin Luther's "Ninety-Five Theses" (1517) criticized the Roman Catholic Church.
His works were widely printed, leading to the Protestant Reformation.
Print's significant role in disseminating new religious ideas was undeniable.
Print and Dissent
Individual Interpretations:
Print enabled unique religious interpretations, even among the lesser-educated populace.
Case of Menocchio:
An Italian miller, Menocchio, after reading available books, offered a radical interpretation of the Bible.
His views angered the Roman Catholic Church, leading to his execution after two trials.
Roman Church's Response:
To counter the unsettling effects of popular readings, the Roman Church imposed strict controls on publishing.
Introduced the Index of Prohibited Books in 1558.
The Reading Mania
The Profound Influence of Print Culture in Europe
Rise in Literacy and the Reading Mania
Literacy rates soared in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries.
Churches played a pivotal role, in establishing schools in villages and democratizing education.
By the late 18th century, some European regions achieved literacy rates between 60% to 80%.
This era witnessed a voracious appetite for reading and an explosion of print material.
Diverse Popular Literature
Affordability and Accessibility:
Lower costs made books available to wider audiences.
Pedlars ventured into villages selling small books and almanacs.
Types of Literature:
England: Penny chapbooks sold by Chapman.
France: "Bibliotheque Bleue" – inexpensive books with blue covers.
Romances, histories, and various other genres flourished.
Emergence of the Periodical Press
Combined current affairs with entertainment.
Newspapers and journals disseminated news about wars, trade, and global happenings.
Scientific discoveries, like those of Isaac Newton, gained a wider readership.
Philosophers like Voltaire and Rousseau reached broader audiences, infusing society with ideas on science, reason, and rationality.
‘Tremble, therefore, tyrants of the world!’
Print was perceived as a catalyst for progress and enlightenment.
Louise-Sebastien Mercier, an 18th-century novelist, emphasized the transformative power of reading.
Mercier highlighted the potential of print to challenge despotism.
Print Culture and the French Revolution
Link Between Print and Revolution:
Historians argue that print culture fostered the environment for the French Revolution.
Key Arguments:
Enlightenment Ideas: Print popularized Enlightenment ideas that critiqued tradition, superstition, and despotism.
Culture of Dialogue: Print encouraged a culture of debate and discussion, fostering revolutionary ideas.
Anti-Monarchy Sentiments: Literature of the 1780s criticized the royalty, seeding discontent.
Interpretation of Ideas:
While print disseminated diverse ideas, people discerned and processed them based on their beliefs and experiences.
The Nineteenth Century
The Evolution of Print Culture in the 19th Century Europe
Mass Literacy and Its Impact
The 19th century marked a surge in mass literacy across Europe.
Children, women, and workers emerged as significant readers.
Children, Women, and Workers: New Readers
Children:
Compulsory primary education resulted in the proliferation of school textbooks.
By 1857, a specialized children’s press was established in France.
Old tales like those from the Grimm Brothers were edited and published, transforming traditional narratives.
Women:
Women emerged not only as avid readers but also as influential writers.
Penny magazines catered specifically to women.
Notable female novelists like Jane Austen and the Bronte sisters redefined the literary representation of women.
Workers:
Lending libraries, existing since the 17th century, became pivotal in educating the working class in the 19th century.
With reduced working hours, workers engaged in self-education and expressed themselves through writing.
Technological Advancements in Printing
Innovations and Improvements:
Late 18th century: Introduction of metal-based presses.
Mid-19th century: Richard M. Hoe perfected the power-driven cylindrical press, enhancing newspaper printing.
Late 19th century: The offset press could print up to six colors simultaneously.
20th century: Electrically operated presses, improved paper feeding methods, and enhanced plate quality revolutionized printing.
Strategies for Increased Sales:
Novels were serialized in periodicals.
Introduction of the Shilling Series in the 1920s in England.
20th-century innovations included the book jacket and, during the 1930s' Great Depression, the release of cheap paperback editions.
India and the World of Print
The Advent of Print Culture in India
Manuscripts Before Print
India had a robust tradition of handwritten manuscripts in multiple languages: Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, and vernaculars.
Manuscripts were typically written on palm leaves or handmade paper, often with intricate illustrations.
These manuscripts were costly, delicate, and written in diverse scripts, making them hard to read.
Despite a widespread network of village schools in pre-colonial Bengal, students primarily learned to write, not read. Knowledge was orally transmitted as teachers dictated from memory.
The Inception of Print in India
The first printing press in India was introduced by Portuguese missionaries in Goa in the mid-16th century.
By 1674: Around 50 books had been printed in Konkani and Kanara.
1579: The first Tamil book was printed in Cochin.
1713: The first Malayalam book was printed by Catholic priests.
By 1710: Dutch Protestant missionaries had printed 32 Tamil texts.
Despite the English East India Company importing presses from the late 17th century, the English press grew slowly in India.
The English Press and Colonial Tensions
James Augustus Hickey started editing the Bengal Gazette in 1780, a weekly magazine independent of colonial influence.
The Bengal Gazette published advertisements, including those for the slave trade, and often shared gossip about senior Company officials.
This led to conflicts with Governor-General Warren Hastings, prompting the promotion of government-approved newspapers to counter the information disseminated by Hickey.
By the end of the 18th century, many newspapers and journals were published in India. Gangadhar Bhattacharya, an associate of Rammohun Roy, published the first Indian newspaper, the Bengal Gazette.
Religious Reform and Public Debates
Print Culture and Religious Debates in India
Introduction to the Religious Debates
The early 19th century was marked by intense debates around religious issues.
Printed tracts and newspapers facilitated these debates, enabling a wider public to participate and shaping the nature of discussions.
Clash of Opinions and the Rise of Newspapers
Various groups, including social and religious reformers, debated matters like widow immolation, monotheism, Brahmanical priesthood, and idolatry.
In Bengal:
Rammohun Roy published Sambad Kaumudi (1821).
Hindu orthodoxy started Samachar Chandrika to counter Roy's views.
Persian newspapers like Jam-i-Jahan Nama and Shamsul Akhbar were published (from 1822).
Bombay Samachar, a Gujarati newspaper, was introduced in the same year.
Muslim Communities and Print
Ulama in north India was concerned about the decline of Muslim dynasties under colonial rule.
Lithographic presses were used to publish Persian and Urdu translations of holy scriptures and religious newspapers.
Deoband Seminary (founded in 1867) published numerous fatwas on everyday conduct and Islamic doctrines.
Various Muslim sects emerged with distinct interpretations, using Urdu print for public debates.
Hindu Communities and Print
Print fostered the reading of religious texts in vernacular languages.
The first printed edition of Ramcharitmanas of Tulsidas was published in Calcutta (1810).
By the mid-19th century, cheap lithographic editions became widely available.
Notable presses:
Naval Kishore Press in Lucknow and Shri Venkateshwar Press in Bombay published religious texts in vernaculars, aiding in group readings and discussions.
Impact of Print on Religion
Printed religious texts reached a vast audience, fostering discussions and debates within and across religions.
Print stimulated conflicting opinions but also bridged communities across India, with newspapers playing a pivotal role in creating pan-Indian identities.
New Forms of Publication
Print Culture, Women, and Social Change in India
New Appetite for Print
Printing fostered a demand for relatable content.
Novels, an import from Europe, evolved with distinct Indian styles and themes.
Other literary forms like lyrics, short stories, and essays emerged.
Visual Culture in Print
The late 19th century saw the rise of a visual culture.
Printers like Raja Ravi Varma produced mass-circulated images.
Cheap prints and calendars became popular, shaping ideas of modernity, tradition, and culture.
Caricatures and cartoons in journals and newspapers commented on societal and political issues.
Women and Print
Print Reflecting Women's Lives
Literature began reflecting women's experiences and emotions.
Women's readership grew; many journals encouraged women's education and discussed social issues.
Rebelling Against the Norms
Despite conservative views against women's education, many rebelled and pursued learning.
Rashsundari Debi secretly learned reading and later wrote the autobiography, "Amar Jiban".
Women Writers & Their Impact
Prominent writers like Kailashbashini Debi and Tarabai Shinde wrote about women's experiences and societal issues.
Print in Regional Languages
Vernacular print culture, especially in Urdu, Tamil, Bengali, and Marathi, focused on women's education and issues.
Popular folk literature was widely printed in Punjab.
Print and the Poor People
Accessibility of Print
Cheap books are sold in markets and crossroads, making them accessible to the poor.
Public libraries in the early 20th century expanded book access.
Caste and Print
From the late 19th century, caste discrimination became a major topic in print.
Notable figures like Jyotiba Phule, B.R. Ambedkar, and E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker (Periyar) wrote influential pieces on caste.
Workers and Print
Workers' writings were rare due to overwork and lack of education.
Notable works include "Chhote Aur Bade Ka Sawal" by Kashibaba and poems by Sudarshan Chakr.
Millworkers in Bangalore set up libraries for self-education.
Print and Censorship
Colonial Censorship and Press Freedom in India
Early Censorship (Pre-1798)
The East India Company's initial censorship targeted Englishmen in India.
Concern: Criticisms by Englishmen might jeopardize the Company's trade monopoly.
Shift in Attitude (1820s)
The Calcutta Supreme Court introduced regulations to curb press freedom.
The company promoted pro-British publications.
In 1835, Governor-General Bentinck revised press laws on petitions by newspaper editors.
Thomas Macaulay formulated rules to restore press freedom.
Post-1857 Revolt Changes
The revolt altered the colonial stance towards press freedom.
Englishmen sought stricter control over the 'native' press.
Rising nationalism in vernacular newspapers led to debates on press control.
1878: The Vernacular Press Act was passed, allowing extensive censorship rights.
The government tracked vernacular newspapers; any seditious content led to warnings, seizures, and confiscation.
Nationalist Press and Colonial Response
Despite censorship, nationalist newspapers proliferated across India.
They reported on colonial misdeeds and bolstered nationalist activities.
Stringent measures provoked more nationalist protests.
Balgangadhar Tilak's sympathy for Punjab revolutionaries in his Kesari led to his imprisonment in 1908, sparking nationwide protests.
Additional Concepts
The Impact and Evolution of Print Culture
Book Making Before the Age of Print
Before printing, books were handwritten and illustrated.
Calligraphy and illustrations were significant arts.
With printing machines, there was a shift in these traditional arts.
Global Influences
Korea:
Tripitaka Koreana, mid-13th-century Buddhist scriptures on about 80,000 woodblocks.
Jikji, one of the world's oldest books printed with movable metal type, 14th century.
Japan:
Ukiyo or 'pictures of the floating world' depicted ordinary human experiences.
Influenced Western artists like Manet and Monet.
Introduction of Print in Europe
Johann Gutenberg introduced the movable type printing machine in the 15th century.
Gutenberg's Bible, the first printed book in Europe, combined new technology with hand-painted designs.
Printing revolutionized information dissemination; books were produced faster.
Print in India
Late arrival compared to Europe and East Asia.
The initial focus on religious texts later shifted to diverse subjects.
Print culture impacted social norms, gender roles, and perceptions.
Raja Ravi Varma popularized mythological prints.
Caricatures and satire became prominent in the late 19th century.
Women and Print
Women's education became a significant topic of debate.
Some believed that educated women would challenge traditional roles.
Advocates like Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossein promoted women's right to education as aligned with religious teachings.
Colonial Control and Print
The colonial government regulated print to control narratives.
Newspapers became tools of resistance against British rule.
The World Wars intensified censorship; reports on the Quit India movement were suppressed.
Gandhi emphasized the importance of freedom of the press and speech.
Key Figures and Publications
Lakshminath Bezbaruah was a significant figure in Assamese literature.
Publications like Penny Magazine in England targeted the working class.
Keywords & Definitions:
Calligraphy: The art of beautiful and stylized writing.
Ukiyo: A Japanese art form depicting ordinary human experiences.
Vellum: A parchment made from the skin of animals.
Platen: In letterpress printing, a board is pressed onto the paper to get an impression of the type.
Ballad: A historical account or folk tale in verse.
Taverns: Places for drinking alcohol, serving food, and socializing.
Compositor: The person who composes the text for printing.
Galley: Metal frame in which types are laid and the text composed.
Protestant Reformation: A 16th-century movement to reform the Catholic Church.
Inquisition: A former Roman Catholic court for identifying and punishing heretics.
Satiety: The state of being fulfilled beyond the point of satisfaction.
Seditious: Action or speech opposing the government.
Despotism: Governance where absolute power is exercised by an individual without checks.
Ulama: Legal scholars of Islam and the Sharia.
Fatwa: A legal pronouncement on Islamic law.
Chronology:
15th century: Gutenberg's printing revolution in Europe.
16th century: The Protestant Reformation.
Mid-13th century: Tripitaka Koreana in Korea.
14th century: Jikji in Korea.
18th century: Raja Ravi Varma's mythological prints.
Late 18th and 19th century: Print in India became widespread; and influenced social norms.
