Chapter 1 - Introduction to Indian Society
- Nature of Sociology:
- Sociology is unique as everyone already has some knowledge about society without explicit teaching.
- The prior knowledge about society can be both an advantage and a disadvantage for learning sociology.
- Our social context shapes our opinions, beliefs, and expectations about society.
- Sociology can teach you how to look at yourself 'from the outside', a concept called 'self-reflexivity'.
- Mapping Social Identity
- Sociology helps locate individuals in society based on various identities like age, regional or linguistic community, economic class, religious community, caste, tribe, etc.
- C. Wright Mills, a renowned American sociologist, emphasized that sociology can help map the connections between "personal troubles" and "social issues".
- Self-Reflexivity
- Sociology can teach individuals how to view themselves from an external perspective.
- This concept is termed as 'self-reflexivity' or simply 'reflexivity'.
- It is the ability to introspect, to redirect one's gaze (typically directed outwards) back onto oneself.
- This self-inspection should be critical, meaning it should be quick to criticize and slow to praise oneself.
- Generation Gap
- The generation gap, a difference in opinions and values between older and younger generations, is a social phenomenon observed in many societies across various time periods.
- Colonialism and Nationalism
- Colonialism inadvertently gave rise to its own adversary: nationalism.
- Colonialism led to the creation of new classes and communities that played a significant role in the independence movement of India
Chapter 2 - Demographic Structure of Indian Society
Introduction to Demography
- Definition: Demography is the systematic study of population. It originates from Greek words, "demos" (people) and "graphein" (describe), implying the description of people.
- Scope: Demography studies trends and processes associated with population, including changes in population size, patterns of births, deaths, migration, and the structure and composition of the population.
- Types of Demography:
- Formal Demography: Quantitative field focusing on population size, birth, death, and migration patterns.
- Social Demography: Focuses on social, economic, or political aspects of populations.
Importance of Demography in Sociology
- The emergence of sociology as an academic discipline is closely tied to demography.
- The formation of nation states as the principal form of political organisation in the beginning of modern science of statistics contributed to the science of demography
- The modern state's expansion in the 18th century Europe required systematic collection of social statistics.
- The American census of 1790 is considered the first modern census. In India, regular ten-yearly censuses started between 1867-72, first completed in 1881, with the most recent being in 2011. Seven Decennial Census has been created since 2011
Durkheim Suicide Study
Émile Durkheim's famous study on suicide posited that variations in suicide rates across different countries are influenced by social causes. Durkheim contended that the rate of suicide (number of suicides per 100,000 population) should be attributed to social factors, even if individual instances of suicide might have personal or specific circumstances
Difference between formal and social demography
Criteria | Formal Demography | Broader Field of Population Studies (Social Demography) |
Main Focus | Measurement and analysis of components of population change. | Causes and consequences of population structures and change. |
Analysis Type | Primarily quantitative. | Enquires into wider social reasons behind population trends. |
Methodology | Uses highly developed mathematical methodology suitable for forecasting population growth and changes in composition. | Focuses on how social processes and structures regulate demographic processes. |
Primary Concern | Components of population change like birth, death, and migration patterns. | Tracing the social reasons that account for population trends. |
Theories and Concepts in Demography
Malthusian Theory of Population Growth: Proposed by Thomas Robert Malthus (1766–1834) in his "Essay on Population" (1798).
Main Argument: Human populations grow faster than the rate of food production. Population rises in geometric progression, while agricultural production grows in arithmetic progression.
Outcome: Humanity is destined to live in poverty as population growth will always outpace food production.
Preventive Checks: Malthus believed that humanity has limited ability to voluntarily reduce the growth of its population through measures like postponing marriage or practicing sexual abstinence.
Positive Checks: These are nature's ways, such as famines and diseases, to address the imbalance between food supply and increasing population when preventive checks fail.
Criticism: Malthus's predictions were refuted by historical experiences in Europe. Birth rates declined, epidemic diseases were controlled, and food production and living standards rose despite population growth
Additionally, liberal and Marxist scholars criticized Malthus for asserting that poverty was caused by population growth, arguing that poverty and starvation resulted from the unequal distribution of economic resources in an unjust social system.
Theory of Demographic Transition: Links population growth to economic development. It suggests three stages of population growth:
Definition: The theory of demographic transition suggests that population growth is linked to overall levels of economic development. Every society follows a typical pattern of development-related population growth.
- First Stage:
Characteristics: This stage is characterized by low population growth in a society that is underdeveloped and technologically backward. The growth rates are low because both the death rate and the birth rate are very high. The balance between the high birth rate and high death rate results in a relatively stable population size.
- Second Stage:
Characteristics: This stage involves a rapid decline in death rates due to improvements in healthcare and sanitation.
Population Explosion: The significant decline in death rates, combined with a still-high birth rate, leads to a population explosion during this stage.
- Third Stage:
Characteristics: The third stage witnesses a decline in birth rates, resulting in a stabilization of the population.
Demographic Transition in India:
In India, the demographic transition is not yet complete. While there has been a significant reduction in the mortality rate, the birth rate has not been brought down to the same extent.
Completion of Demographic Transition: The demographic transition in India will be considered complete when the birth rate and death rate are both low, leading to a stable population size.
Common concepts and indicators
Birth Rate
Definition: The birth rate is the total number of live births in a particular area (an entire country, a state, a district, or other territorial unit) during a specified period (usually a year) divided by the total population of that area in thousands.
Expression: The birth rate is expressed as the number of live births per 1000 population.
Dependence: The statistics for the birth rate depend on the reporting of births by the families in which they occur.
Death Rate or Mortality Rate
Definition: The death rate is a statistic that represents the number of deaths in a given area during a given time.
Expression: It is expressed as the number of deaths per 1000 population.
Dependence: Like the birth rate, the death rate also depends on the reporting of deaths by the families in which they occur.
Replacement Level
Definition: The replacement level of fertility refers to the number of children that each woman needs to have to ensure that one daughter replaces her in the next generation, taking into account child mortality. In populations without significant mortality, this level is typically considered to be 2.1 children per woman.
Effects of Replacement Level:
- At Replacement Level (TFR = 2.1):
- The population remains stable over time, assuming no significant migration.
- Each generation is replaced by an equivalent number of people.
- There is a balance between births and deaths, leading to zero natural population growth.
- Above Replacement Level (TFR > 2.1):
- The population grows over time.
- Each generation is larger than the previous one.
- This can lead to challenges related to resource allocation, infrastructure, and potential overpopulation.
- Below Replacement Level (TFR < 2.1):
- The population declines over time.
- Each generation is smaller than the previous one.
- Initially, the population might still grow due to population momentum, but it will eventually start to decline.
- This can lead to an aging population, potential labor shortages, and increased burdens on social support systems
Rate of Natural Increase or Growth Rate of Population
Definition: Refers to the difference between the birth rate and the death rate.
Zero Growth Rate: When this difference is zero (or, in practice, very small), then we say that the population has ‘stabilized’, or has reached the ‘replacement level’. This is the rate of growth required for new generations to replace the older ones that are dying out.
Negative Growth Rate: Societies can experience a negative growth rate when their fertility levels are so low that the population starts to decline
Example : Japan Russia Italy and eastern Europe
High Growth Rate : experience by countries which are going to demographic transition
Fertility Rate
Definition: The fertility rate refers to the number of live births per 1000 women in the child-bearing age group, usually taken to be 15 to 49 years.
Crude Rate: The term "crude" in demographic contexts often refers to a rate that is calculated for an entire population without accounting for specific age groups or other sub-categories. In the context of the fertility rate, the "crude" rate is a rough average for an entire population and does not take into account the differences across age groups.
Age-Specific Rates: These rates are calculated to account for differences across age groups. Age-specific rates can sometimes be very significant in affecting the meaning of indicators. That's why demographers calculate age-specific rates to provide a more detailed and accurate picture of fertility patterns within specific age groups.
Total Fertility Rate (TFR): The TFR represents the average number of children a woman is expected to give birth to during her lifetime. Some states in India, like Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal, have managed to bring down their TFRs to below the replacement level. However, states like Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh still have high TFRs.
Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)
Definition: The infant mortality rate is the number of deaths of babies before the age of one year per 1000 live births.
Significance: High rates of infant mortality are a clear indicator of backwardness and poverty. Development is usually accompanied by sharp declines in these rates as medical facilities improve and levels of education, awareness, and prosperity increase.
Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)
Definition: The maternal mortality rate is the number of women who die in childbirth per 100,000 live births.
Significance: Like IMR, high rates of maternal mortality are an unambiguous indicator of backwardness and poverty. Development leads to significant reductions in these rates due to better medical facilities and increased levels of education and awareness.
Life Expectancy
Definition: Life expectancy refers to the estimated number of years that an average person is expected to survive.
Calculation: It is calculated based on data on age-specific death rates in a given area over a specific period.
Significance: Life expectancy is a measure of the overall health and well-being of a population. Higher life expectancy indicates better health care, nutrition, and living conditions. It's a comprehensive indicator that reflects various factors, including medical care, social services, and overall living conditions.
Sex Ratio
Definition: The sex ratio is an important indicator of gender balance in the population. It is defined as the number of females per 1000 males.
Historical Perspective: Historically, the sex ratio has been slightly in favor of females, meaning that the number of females per 1000 males has generally been somewhat higher than 1000. However, India has witnessed a declining sex ratio for more than a century.
Trends:
- In 1901: 972 females per 1000 males
- In 1961: 941 females per 1000 males
- In 1991: 927 females per 1000 males
- In 2001: 933 females per 1000 males
- In 2011: 943 females per 1000 males
Reasons for Decline in Sex Ratio:
- One health factor that affects women differently from men is childbearing. The risk of death in childbirth is faced only by women.
- Maternal mortality is expected to decline with development due to improved nutrition, education, awareness, and medical facilities. Maternal mortality rates have been decreasing in India, although they remain high by international standards.
- Despite these improvements, it's challenging to attribute the worsening of the sex ratio over time to maternal mortality.
Current Sex Ratio of India (as of 2011): 943 females per 1000 males.
Reasons for Sex Ratio Being in Favor of Females:
Biological Advantage: Girl babies appear to have an advantage over boy babies in terms of resistance to diseases. This inherent biological advantage can lead to a higher number of female survivors in infancy compared to males.
Life Expectancy: The life expectancy of females is generally seen to be higher than that of males. This means that, on average, women tend to live longer than men, contributing to a higher number of females in the population.
Age Structure of the Population
Definition: The age structure of the population refers to the proportion of persons in different age groups relative to the total population.
Significance: The age structure changes in response to levels of development and average life expectancy. Initially, factors like poor medical facilities, prevalence of disease, and high infant and maternal mortality result in a relatively short lifespan. With development, the quality of life improves, leading to better life expectancy. This shifts the age structure with relatively smaller proportions in younger age groups and larger proportions in older age groups, also referred to as the ageing of the population.
Dependency Ratio
- Definition: The dependency ratio is a measure comparing the portion of a population composed of dependents (elderly people too old to work and children too young to work) with the portion in the working age group, generally defined as 15 to 64 years. It's calculated as the population below 15 or above 64, divided by the population in the 15-64 age group, usually expressed as a percentage.
- Significance: A rising dependency ratio in countries with an ageing population is concerning, as a relatively smaller proportion of working-age people have to support a larger proportion of dependents. Conversely, a falling dependency ratio can be a source of economic growth due to the larger proportion of workers relative to non-workers.
Demographic Dividend
- Definition: The demographic dividend refers to the economic growth potential resulting from shifts in a population's age structure, mainly when the share of the working-age population is larger than the non-working-age share.
- Relation to Dependency Ratio: The demographic dividend is closely related to the dependency ratio. A falling dependency ratio can lead to a demographic dividend due to the larger proportion of workers relative to non-workers. However, this benefit is temporary, as the larger pool of working-age people will eventually become non-working elderly people. The real challenge is in defining the dependency ratio based on age groups rather than the ratio of non-workers to workers. The difference between the two is determined by unemployment and underemployment.
Size and Growth of India's Population
- Current Status: India is the second most populous country in the world after China.
- Total Population (2011 Census): 1.21 billion (or 121 crores).
- Historical Growth Rate: Between 1901–1951, the average annual growth rate of India's population did not exceed 1.33%, which is considered a modest rate of growth.
- Negative Growth Rate: Between 1911 and 1921, there was a negative growth rate of -0.03%. This decline was primarily due to the influenza epidemic during 1918–19, which resulted in the death of approximately 12.5 million persons or 5% of India's total population.
- Post-Independence Growth: After gaining independence from British rule, the growth rate of India's population increased substantially, reaching up to 2.2% during 1961-1981. Although the annual growth rate has decreased since then, it remains one of the highest in the developing world.
Reasons for Decline in Death Rate After 1921
- The principal reasons for the decline in the death rate after 1921 were increased control over famines and epidemic diseases.
- Before 1931, both death rates and birth rates were high. However, after this transitional period, the death rates fell sharply, while the birth rate only decreased slightly.
Influenza Epidemic
Influenza Epidemic of 1918-19: This was the single biggest epidemic, which resulted in the death of approximately 170 lakh people, or about 5% of India's total population at that time. Globally, it was also known as the ‘Spanish Flu’.
Global Influenza Pandemic of 1918–19: Influenza is caused by a virus that primarily attacks the upper respiratory tract. The genetic makeup of influenza viruses allows for both major and minor genetic changes. Three times in the last century, influenza viruses underwent major genetic changes, leading to global pandemics.
Spanish Flu: This pandemic affected large parts of the world population and is estimated to have killed at least 40 million people in 1918-1919. Two other influenza pandemics occurred in 1957 (“Asian influenza”) and 1968 (“Hong Kong influenza”), causing significant morbidity and mortality globally. The global mortality rate from the 1918/1919 Spanish flu pandemic is estimated at 2.5 – 5% of the human population. Influenza may have killed as many as 25 million in its first 25 weeks. In the U.S., about 28% of the population suffered, with 500,000 to 675,000 deaths. In Britain, 200,000 died; in France, more than 400,000. Entire villages perished in places like Alaska and southern Africa.
Comparison with Modern Pandemics: In 2020–21, the world faced the COVID–19 pandemic. The Spanish Flu's rapid spread and high mortality rate make it one of the deadliest pandemics in history, with its impact being felt globally.
Medical Improvements and Epidemics
- Medical advancements, mass vaccination programs, and sanitation efforts have reduced epidemic outbreaks.
- Diseases like malaria, tuberculosis, diarrhoea, and dysentery still persist but are less deadly than before.
- Recent epidemics include plague in Surat (1994) and outbreaks of dengue and chikungunya in various regions.
Famines and Mortality
- Famines, caused by poverty, malnutrition, and climatic vulnerabilities, were recurring death causes.
- Factors like inadequate transportation, communication, and state efforts exacerbated famines.
- Famines weren't just due to foodgrain shortages but also people's inability to access food.
- Agricultural productivity, better communication, and state interventions have reduced famine deaths.
- The Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act aims to address hunger and starvation in rural areas
Birth Rate Trends Store
- The birth rate hasn't seen a drastic drop due to its sociocultural nature.
- Prosperity, reduced infant mortality, and education lead to smaller family sizes.
- Fertility rates vary across Indian states:
- States like Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal have low fertility rates (below replacement level).
- States like Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh have high fertility rates.
- In 2018–19, India's total birth rate was 22.4. Uttar Pradesh and Bihar have the highest rates and will contribute significantly to India's population growth until 2041
Age Structure of Indian Population
Age Composition of India's Population
- Majority of India's population is young with a lower average age compared to many countries.
- 1971 to 2011 Trends:
- Under 15 age group: Decreased from 42% to 29%.
- 15–59 age group: Increased from 53% to 63%.
- 60+ age group: Small increase from 5% to 7%.
- Projected Changes (2001 to 2026):
- 0-14 age group: Decrease from 34% to 23%.
- 60+ age group: Increase from 7% to 12%.
Regional Variations in Age Structure
- Kerala: Age structure similar to developed countries.
- Uttar Pradesh: High proportions in younger age groups, low in aged groups.
- India: Combination of states like Uttar Pradesh and Kerala.
- Population Pyramids (2026): Differences observed between Kerala and Uttar Pradesh
Kerala's population is getting older with fewer children, while Uttar Pradesh has a lot of young people and children. This difference can impact things like schools, jobs, healthcare needs, and more in each state.
Demographic Dividend
- India's young age structure is seen as an advantage.
- Similar to past East Asian economies and current Ireland, India is expected to benefit from a 'demographic dividend'.
- This advantage arises from a large working-age population with fewer old people to support.
- The demographic dividend isn't automatic; it requires appropriate policies to be fully realized.
Demographic Dividend in India
What is it? The 'demographic dividend' refers to the potential economic growth that can result from shifts in a country's age structure, mainly when the share of the working-age population is larger than the non-working-age population.
India's Position:
- India is one of the youngest countries globally, with a third of its population below 15 years of age in 2011.
- In 2020, the average Indian was 29 years old, much younger than counterparts in China, the U.S., Western Europe, and Japan.
- This young age structure implies a large and potentially growing labor force.
Benefits
- A larger working-age population can lead to increased productivity and growth.
- The demographic transition can reduce the 'dependency ratio', creating potential for growth.
Challenges
- The potential growth can only be realized if the working-age population is educated and employed.
- High levels of unemployment or underemployment can negate the benefits of a young population.
- India's employment data shows a decline in job creation, especially for the young, indicating that the demographic advantage isn't being fully utilized.
Conclusion
- India has a unique opportunity due to its demographic dividend.
- However, without proper strategies and interventions, the potential benefits of this young population might not be realized.
In essence, while India's young population offers a significant opportunity for economic growth, it's crucial to address challenges like education and employment to truly harness this demographic dividend
Relationship between education in lower Birth Rate
The relationship between education and lower birth rates is a well-studied phenomenon, and there are several reasons why more educated societies or regions tend to have lower birth rates:
- Economic Priorities: Education often leads to better career opportunities and aspirations. Women, in particular, may choose to delay childbirth to pursue higher education and establish their careers.
- Knowledge and Access to Family Planning: Educated individuals are more likely to have knowledge of and access to contraception and family planning methods. They are also more likely to understand the benefits of spacing out children.
- Women's Empowerment: Education empowers women, giving them more autonomy over their life choices, including the decision to have fewer children. Educated women often have greater agency in family planning decisions.
- Child Survival: With education comes better healthcare knowledge and practices. As child mortality rates decrease in educated societies, parents often choose to have fewer children, expecting that all will survive to adulthood.
- Economic Security: In less educated societies, having more children might be seen as a form of economic security for old age. In contrast, more educated societies often have systems in place (like pensions or social security) that provide security in old age, reducing the need for larger families.
- Cultural Shifts: Education often brings about shifts in cultural and societal norms. Values might shift from traditional to more modern, where smaller families are preferred.
- Cost of Raising Children: In more educated and urbanized settings, the perceived cost (both direct and opportunity cost) of raising children can be higher, leading to a preference for smaller families.
- Delayed Marriages: Higher education often correlates with delayed marriages, which naturally can lead to fewer childbearing years.
It's worth noting that while education plays a significant role in reducing birth rates, other factors like urbanization, access to healthcare, and economic development also contribute. In the case of Kerala, a combination of high literacy rates, strong healthcare systems, and women's empowerment has contributed to its lower birth rate.
Reasons for Declining Sex Ratios in India
Overview:
- Historically, the number of females per 1000 males in India has been slightly above 1000.
- However, the sex ratio has been declining for over a century, from 972 females per 1000 males in 1900 to 933 in 2000. By 2011, it slightly improved to 943.
Child Sex Ratio Concerns:
- The child sex ratio (0-6 years) has seen a sharper decline. From 945 in 1991, it fell to 927 in 2001 and further to 919 in 2011.
- Nine states and union territories have child sex ratios below 900, with Haryana being the lowest at 793.
- Prosperous regions like Maharashtra, Punjab, Haryana, Chandigarh, and Delhi have low child sex ratios despite their economic status. Hence Economic Status is not the cause of declining sex ration as well.
Potential Causes:
- Differential treatment of girl babies leading to neglect.
- Sex-specific abortions and female infanticide due to cultural beliefs.
- Misuse of medical technologies like sonograms to determine and selectively abort female fetuses.
Maternal Mortality Not the Cause:
- While maternal mortality affects only women, its rates have been declining in India, making it an unlikely cause for the declining sex ratio.
Regional Patterns:
- The lowest child sex ratios are often found in India's most prosperous regions, indicating that the issue isn't due to poverty or ignorance.
Government Initiatives:
- The Pre-natal Diagnostic Techniques (Regulation and Prevention of Misuse) Act has been in place since 1996, banning sex determination and imposing penalties.
- The government introduced the "Beti-Bachao, Beti-Padhao" program to address the declining child sex ratio.
Conclusion: The declining sex ratio in India, especially among children, is a pressing concern. While laws and regulations can help, changing societal attitudes towards female children is crucial for a long-term solution.
Literacy
Introduction
- Importance of Literacy:
- Literacy is a foundation for education and empowerment.
- It leads to career awareness, participation in the knowledge economy, health awareness, and overall community well-being.
- Post-Independence Progress:
- Literacy rates have significantly improved since India's independence.
- Nearly two-thirds of the Indian population is literate now.
- However, the growth in literacy rates competes with India's high population growth.
- Gender Disparities:
- There's a 16.3% gap between male and female literacy rates.
- Female literacy has been growing faster than male literacy.
- Between 2001 and 2011, female literacy grew by 10.4%, while male literacy grew by 7.6%.
- Social Group Disparities:
- Historically marginalized groups, like Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, have lower literacy rates.
- Within these groups, female literacy is even lower.
- Regional Disparities:
- Literacy rates vary widely across states.
- Kerala is nearing universal literacy, while Bihar lags significantly behind.
- Impact of Inequalities:
- Disparities in literacy rates can perpetuate inequality across generations.
- Illiterate parents face challenges in ensuring their children receive a good education, reinforcing existing inequalities.
In essence, while India has made significant strides in improving literacy rates, disparities based on gender, social groups, and regions persist. Addressing these inequalities is crucial for breaking the cycle of intergenerational inequality.
Rural-Urban Differences in Literacy and Development: An Overview
- Demographic Distribution:
- Majority of India's population resides in rural areas (68.8% as of 2011).
- Urban population has been steadily increasing, from 11% in the early 1900s to 31.2% in 2011.
- Economic Shifts:
- Agriculture, once the primary contributor to the economy, now contributes only about one-sixth of the GDP.
- Despite the majority living in rural areas, the economic value of agricultural produce has declined.
- Increasingly, rural inhabitants are engaged in non-farm occupations or commute to urban centers for work.
- Cultural Influence:
- Mass media and communication have introduced urban lifestyles and consumption patterns to rural areas.
- Urban norms and aspirations are now prevalent even in remote villages.
- Urban Migration:
- Cities attract rural populations due to better job opportunities.
- Decline in common property resources in villages (like ponds and forests) has accelerated rural-to-urban migration.
- Urban areas offer anonymity, which can be beneficial for socially oppressed groups like Sc & ST and those seeking low-status jobs.
- Urban Growth:
- Rapid urbanization is evident, especially in metropolises.
- Over two-thirds of the urban population resides in 27 big cities with million-plus populations.
- Urban infrastructure struggles to keep up with the rapid growth of larger cities.
- Political Dynamics:
- Despite the increasing urbanization, rural areas continue to hold significant political power in India.
In essence, while urban areas in India are growing rapidly and influencing cultural norms, the majority of the population still resides in rural areas. Economic shifts, opportunities, and challenges in both rural and urban areas shape the migration patterns and overall development trajectory of the country.
Population Policy in India: A Summary
- Significance of Population Dynamics:
- Population dynamics play a crucial role in a nation's development and the well-being of its citizens.
- Developing countries face unique challenges related to population growth and distribution.
- India's Proactive Approach:
- India was one of the first countries to announce an official population policy in 1952.
- National Family Planning Programme:
- Launched to influence the rate and pattern of population growth.
- Initial objectives: Slow down population growth, promote birth control methods, improve public health, and raise awareness about population and health issues.
- Achievements in population control and health improvements are highlighted in Box 2.4.
- Setback During the National Emergency (1975–76):
- The government introduced a coercive mass sterilisation program. Vasectomy for Men and Tubectomy for Women
- Large numbers of vulnerable individuals were forcibly sterilised.
- The program faced significant opposition and was abandoned after the Emergency.
- Shift in Approach:
- The program was renamed the "National Family Welfare Programme" post-Emergency.
- Coercive methods were discarded.
- The focus shifted to a broader set of socio-demographic objectives.
- Recent Developments:
- The National Population Policy of 2000 introduced new guidelines.
- In 2017, the "National Health Policy" incorporated these socio-demographic goals with new targets (as mentioned in Box 2.5).
- Key Takeaway:
- The state can facilitate conditions for demographic change.
- However, factors related to human fertility are deeply intertwined with economic, social, and cultural changes.
In essence, while India has made concerted efforts to manage its population growth, the approach has evolved over time. The country's experience underscores the importance of socio-economic and cultural factors in shaping population policies and their outcomes.
India's Demographic Transition: A Summary
- Declining Population Growth:
- Census data indicates a decline in population growth since 1991.
- The average number of children a woman is expected to have during her lifetime dropped from 3.8 in 1990 to 2.7 today.
- Projected Population Increase:
- Despite declining fertility rates, India's population is expected to rise from 1.2 billion currently to approximately 1.6 billion by 2050.
- Population Momentum:
- This projected increase is attributed to population momentum.
- A large group of women of reproductive age will contribute to population growth in the coming generation, even if they have fewer children than the previous generations.
- Decline in Crude Death Rate (CDR) and Crude Birth Rate (CBR):
- Over the past four decades, both CDR and CBR have been declining, indicating India's progression towards a post-transitional phase.
- From 1950 to 1990, the decline in CBR was slower than the decline in CDR.
- However, in the 1990s, the decline in CBR was sharper than the decline in CDR.
- Resulting Population Growth Rate:
- Due to these changes, the annual population growth rate has reduced to 1.6% today.
In essence, while India's fertility rates are decreasing, the country's population is still projected to grow due to the existing population momentum. The shifts in CDR and CBR over the years highlight the country's demographic transition and its movement towards a post-transitional phase.
Summary of the National Health Policy 2017 Goals
- Financial Commitment:
- Raise government health expenditure from 1.15% to 2.5% of GDP by 2025.
- Increase state health spending to > 8% of their budget by 2020.
- Life & Health Metrics:
- Enhance Life Expectancy from 67.5 to 70 by 2025.
- Track Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALY) Index by 2022.
- Reduce Total Fertility Rate (TFR) to 2.1 by 2025.
- Lower Under Five Mortality to 23 and Maternal Mortality Rate to 100 by 2020.
- Decrease neo-natal mortality to 16 and achieve a single-digit still birth rate by 2025.
- Disease Control:
- Achieve 90:90:90 target for HIV/AIDS by 2020.
- Attain >85% cure rate for new TB patients and aim for TB elimination by 2025.
- Reduce blindness prevalence to 0.25/1000 and cut disease burden by a third by 2025.
- Reduce premature deaths from major diseases like cardiovascular diseases, cancer, etc. by 25% by 2025.
- Healthcare Utilization & Services:
- Boost public health facility usage by 50% by 2025.
- Maintain >90% antenatal care coverage and skilled birth attendance by 2025.
- Ensure >90% of newborns are fully immunized by one year of age by 2025.
- Address family planning needs above 90% by 2025.
- 80% of known hypertensive and diabetic individuals to have "controlled disease status" by 2025.
- Lifestyle & Environment:
- Achieve a 15% reduction in tobacco use by 2020 and 30% by 2025.
- Reduce under-five children stunting prevalence by 40% by 2025.
- Provide universal access to safe water and sanitation by 2020.
- Halve occupational injuries to 334 per lakh agricultural workers by 2020.
- Infrastructure & Data:
- Reduce households facing catastrophic health expenditure by 25% by 2025.
- Ensure paramedics and doctors availability as per IPHS norms in priority districts by 2020.
- Increase community health volunteers as per IPHS norms in priority districts by 2025.
- Establish primary and secondary care facilities in priority districts by 2025.
- Create a district-level electronic health system database by 2020.
In essence, the National Health Policy 2017 focuses on improving health metrics, controlling diseases, enhancing healthcare services, promoting healthy lifestyles, and strengthening infrastructure and data systems.
Chapter 3 - Social Institutions: Continuity & Change
Caste
Caste in the Past
- Introduction:
- 'Caste' is an ancient social institution in India, existing for thousands of years.
- It remains a part of modern Indian society, raising questions about its continuity from past to present.
- Caste in Historical Context:
- Caste is unique to the Indian sub-continent, though similar social structures exist elsewhere.
- It's not limited to Hindu society; it has influenced Muslims, Christians, and Sikhs in India.
- The English term 'caste' originates from the Portuguese word 'casta', meaning pure breed.
- In Indian languages, caste is represented by two terms: 'varna' (four-fold division) and 'jati' (species or kinds).
- 'Varna' divides society into four categories: brahmana, kshatriya, vaishya, and shudra, excluding the 'outcastes' or 'panchamas'.
- 'Jati' is a broader term, often used to denote the caste system in regional languages.
- Varna vs. Jati:
- 'Varna' is an all-India classification, while 'jati' is more regional, with variations across different areas.
- The relationship between the two has been debated, with 'varna' seen as a broad category and 'jati' as a detailed sub-classification.
- Historical Evolution:
- The age of the caste system is debated, but the four 'varna' classification is believed to be around three thousand years old.
- Initially, during the late Vedic period (900-500 BC), the system was more flexible, with the possibility of movement between categories.
- Over time, especially in the post-Vedic era, the caste system became more rigid and birth-determined.
In essence, while the caste system has ancient roots in India, its meaning and structure have evolved over time. The system's rigidity and the relationship between 'varna' and 'jati' have been subjects of significant debate and interpretation.
Features of Caste
- Birth-Based Determination: Caste is assigned at birth and cannot be changed voluntarily, except in cases of expulsion.
- Endogamous Marriages: Members of a caste are required to marry within their caste, preventing inter-caste marriages.
- Food Restrictions: Rules govern what types of food can be consumed and dictate with whom food can be shared. Also called as Commensality Restrictions
- Hierarchical Structure: Castes are organised in a rigid hierarchy, with every caste having a designated rank, although this ranking may vary by region.
- Sub-Castes: Castes often have sub-divisions, creating a segmental organization within the system.
- Occupational Links: Castes historically corresponded to specific occupations, which were hereditary and passed from generation to generation.
- Occupational Restrictions: A particular occupation could only be pursued by the caste associated with it, barring members of other castes.
- Principles of Difference and Wholism: The caste system combines principles of separation and hierarchy, emphasizing the distinctiveness of each caste while also fitting them into a hierarchical societal whole.
- Purity and Pollution: Castes are ranked based on the concepts of purity (closer to the sacred) and pollution (distant or opposed to the sacred). Higher status is associated with ritual purity.
- Material and Social Status: Social status is closely tied to material power, with those in power typically having higher status.
- Complementary Groups: Castes are considered complementary and non-competing, each having a specific place in the social division of labor. Mobility within the system is highly limited.
The caste system was characterized by rigidity, inequality, and a complex set of rules that governed various aspects of life, including birth, marriage, occupation, and social interactions. The hierarchical structure was based on notions of ritual purity and impurity, with higher status assigned to ritually pure castes. Despite its theoretical principles, the caste system led to significant disparities in society, with some castes benefiting while others endured endless labor and subordination. Mobility within the system was virtually impossible, as one's caste was determined at birth.
Important Personalities
- Ayyankali:
- Leader for lower castes and Dalits
- Fought for freedom to use public roads
- Advocated for Dalit children's education
- Jotirao Govindrao Phule:
- Denounced caste system injustice
- Founded Satyashodhak Samaj in 1873
- Championed human rights and social justice for low-caste people
- Savitri Bai Phule:
- First female headmistress
- Established India's first girls' school in Pune
- Devoted to educating Shudras and Ati-Shudras
- Started a night school for laborers
- Died while serving plague patients
- Periyar (E.V. Ramasami Naickar):
- Rationalist leader of lower-caste movement
- Advocated equality for all
- Promoted liberty and equality
- Sri Narayana Guru:
- Preached brotherhood for all
- Fought against caste system's ill effects
- Led a peaceful social revolution
- Advocated 'One Caste, One Religion, One God for all men'
- Mysore Narasimhachar Srinivas:
- Prominent sociologist and social anthropologist
- Introduced concepts like 'sanskritisation' and 'dominant caste'
- Authored "The Remembered Village" – a renowned village study in social anthropology
Impact of Colonialism on Caste
- Historical Dividing Line: The period of Indian history can be divided into the colonial era (roughly 1800-1947) and the post-independence or post-colonial period (from 1947 to the present).
- Transformation of Caste: Caste as a social institution underwent significant changes during the colonial period, with some scholars suggesting that modern caste is more a product of colonialism than ancient Indian tradition.
- British Interest in Caste: British administrators initially sought to understand the complexities of caste to govern efficiently. They conducted surveys and studies, often led by amateur ethnologists among British officials.
- Census as a Turning Point: The census, initiated in the 1860s and conducted regularly from 1881, played a crucial role in shaping perceptions of caste. The 1901 Census, led by Herbert Risley, collected data on the social hierarchy of caste, influencing how caste was perceived.
- Rise of Caste Identities: The direct counting and official recording of caste statuses led to the solidification of caste identities, making them more rigid and less fluid than before.
- Welfare Measures: The colonial administration also showed an interest in the welfare of oppressed castes, known as the 'depressed classes.' The Government of India Act of 1935 recognized these groups, giving rise to the terms 'Scheduled Tribes' and 'Scheduled Castes.'
- Scheduled Castes: The 'Scheduled Castes' category included the most oppressed castes, including the 'untouchable' castes, which faced severe discrimination.
- Global Changes: Colonialism coincided with worldwide changes due to the spread of capitalism and modernity, impacting not just India but the entire world.
Overall, colonialism fundamentally transformed the institution of caste, making it more rigid and influencing the way it is perceived and categorized in modern India.
How Did Colonialism make Caste System in more rigid
- Census and Documentation:
- British colonial administration systematically recorded and categorized caste identities, making them more concrete.
- Emphasis on Caste Hierarchy:
- Colonial authorities focused on understanding and documenting the social hierarchy of castes, reinforcing the idea of a rigid caste system.
- Legal Recognition:
- The Government of India Act of 1935 recognized Scheduled Castes and Tribes, codifying and institutionalizing caste identities.
- Social Reform Movements:
- Response to colonial policies led to social reform movements, sometimes strengthening caste identities in the struggle for justice.
- Separation and Divisiveness:
- Colonial policies often promoted segregation along caste lines, fostering divisions among caste groups.
- Economic Factors:
- The colonial economy relied on caste-based labor divisions, reinforcing caste-based economic roles.
- Education Policies:
- British educational policies sometimes segregated students by caste, perpetuating caste distinctions in education.
Caste in Present
- Post-Independence Era: After India gained independence in 1947, caste continued to play a significant role in society, with its influence extending into the nationalist movement.
- Early Initiatives: Efforts to organize and uplift the lower castes, particularly untouchable castes, began in the 19th century. Leaders like Mahatma Jotiba Phule, Babasaheb Ambedkar, Ayyankali, Sri Narayana Guru, Iyotheedass, and Periyar worked towards this cause.
- Anti-Untouchability Movements: Both Mahatma Gandhi and Babasaheb Ambedkar organized protests against untouchability starting in the 1920s. Anti-untouchability programs became a significant part of the Congress agenda, aiming to abolish caste distinctions.
- Nationalist Movement Perspective: The dominant view within the nationalist movement was to treat caste as a social evil and a colonial tactic to divide Indians. Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi worked to uplift lower castes while reassuring upper castes of their interests being protected.
- Post-Independence State: The newly independent Indian state inherited these contradictions regarding caste. The Constitution explicitly committed to the abolition of caste, but radical reforms to undermine caste-based economic inequality were not fully implemented.
- Caste-Blind Approach: The state often operated in a caste-blind manner, believing that this would naturally lead to the erosion of caste-based privileges and eventual abolition of the institution. However, reservations for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes were the exception.
- Economic Change: Economic development and industrialization indirectly affected caste by creating new jobs without caste restrictions. Urbanization and modern education led to a decline in extreme caste practices.
- Resilience of Caste: Despite changes, caste remained resilient, especially in recruitment for industrial jobs, which often followed caste-based lines.
- Cultural and Domestic Spheres: Caste continued to exert a strong influence in cultural and domestic aspects, particularly in matters of marriage where endogamy remained prevalent.
- Caste in Politics: Democratic politics in India has been deeply influenced by caste since independence. Caste remains central to electoral politics, with the emergence of explicitly caste-based political parties in the 1980s.
- Complex Caste Dynamics: While caste solidarities initially played a decisive role in elections, the political landscape has become increasingly complex as different parties employ caste calculations, making it difficult to predict electoral outcomes.
Modern Concepts of Caste
Sociological Concepts and Changes in the Caste System: Key Points
- Sanskritisation:
- Coined by M.N. Srinivas, it refers to the process where lower or middle caste members attempt to improve their social status by adopting the rituals, practices, and customs of higher-status castes.
- Dominant Caste:
- Also introduced by M.N. Srinivas, this term refers to castes with large populations that gained land rights through post-independence land reforms.
- These castes acquired economic and political power and played a significant role in regional politics and agriculture.
- Examples include Yadavs, Vokkaligas, Reddys, Khammas, Marathas, Jats, and Patidars.
- Invisibility of Caste for Upper Caste Urban Classes:
- Caste has become less significant for upper caste urban middle and upper classes due to their socioeconomic advantages.
- Caste played a crucial role in ensuring access to economic and educational resources during rapid development.
- These groups received subsidized public education, especially in professional fields like science, technology, medicine, and management.
- Initially, their privileged status gave them an edge, leading to a belief that caste played a diminishing role in their success.
- However, this upper caste group is differentiated, with not all upper caste individuals being privileged; some are still economically disadvantaged.
- Visibility of Caste for Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Backward Castes:
- Caste has become more prominent for these groups, overshadowing other aspects of their identity.
- Lack of inherited educational and social capital requires them to compete with an entrenched upper caste group.
- Caste identity becomes a crucial collective asset, as discrimination persists.
- Policies like reservations and protective discrimination serve as lifelines but also reinforce the significance of caste in their identity.
- For these groups, caste often becomes the primary recognized aspect of their identity.
Tribes
Tribes & Their Types
- Definition of Tribes
'Tribe' is a modern term for some of the oldest communities in the Indian subcontinent.
Tribes have traditionally been defined by what they were not: they did not practice religions with written texts, did not have a typical state or political structure, and did not have sharp class divisions
Region | Tribal Population Percentage |
Middle India | About 85% |
North Eastern States | Over 11% |
Rest of India | Less than 12% (except Odisha and Madhya Pradesh) |
Ecological Habitats | Hills, forests, rural plains, urban industrial areas |
- Classification of Tribal Societies
- Introduction
- Include region, language, physical characteristics, and ecological habitat.
- Concentrations of tribal populations are found mainly in 'middle India,' the northeastern states, and some parts of other regions.
- Ecological habitats vary from hills and forests to rural plains and urban industrial areas.
- Language Classification:
- Tribes are categorized into four language groups: Indo-Aryan, Dravidian, Austric, and Tibeto-Burman.
- Indo-Aryan and Dravidian languages are shared with the rest of the Indian population.
- Austric and Tibeto-Burman languages are primarily spoken by tribals.
- Physical-Racial Classification
- Tribes are classified into categories such as Negrito, Australoid, Mongoloid, Dravidian, and Aryan based on physical-racial characteristics.
- The last two categories are shared with the rest of India's population.
- Size Variation:
- Tribes vary greatly in size, with populations ranging from a few million to just a few individuals.
- The largest tribes include Gonds, Bhils, Santhals, Oraons, Minas, Bodos, and Mundas, each with over a million members.
- Tribal population constitutes about 8.6% of India's total population, totaling around 104 million tribal individuals according to the 2011 Census.
- Classification based on acquired traits considers modes of livelihood and the extent of assimilation into Hindu society.
- Modes of livelihood among tribes include fishermen, food gatherers, hunters, shifting cultivators, peasants, and plantation and industrial workers.
- The degree of assimilation into Hindu society is a dominant classification criterion, considering tribes' attitude toward Hinduism and the status accorded to them in Hindu society.
Tribes are classified based on their 'permanent' and 'acquired' traits
Permanent Traits
Acquired Traits
Evolution of the Concept of Tribe
Debate in the 1960s
- Scholars debated whether tribes were fundamentally different from caste-based peasant society.
- Continuum Perspective: Tribes seen as an extension of caste-based society, with fewer hierarchical levels and community-based resource ownership.
- Opposing View: Tribes were considered entirely distinct due to their lack of beliefs in purity, pollution, and hierarchical integration (central to the caste system).
Criteria for Distinguishing Tribes
- Scholars attempted to distinguish tribes using criteria such as size, isolation, religion, and means of livelihood.
- However, these criteria were found to be inconsistent and unreliable.
Mechanisms of Assimilation into Hindu Society
- Assimilation into Hindu society was explored through various mechanisms.
- Sanskritisation: Tribes adopting Hindu rituals and practices to attain higher social status.
- Acceptance into the Shudra Fold: Conquest by caste Hindus led to tribes being incorporated as Shudras.
- Acculturation: Tribes adopting aspects of mainstream culture.
Indian History and Tribal Absorption
- Indian history was seen as a process of absorbing tribal groups into caste Hindu society.
- Debate over whether this process was natural or exploitative.
Challenges to the Notion of "Pristine" Tribes
- Scholars argued against viewing tribes as "pristine" societies untouched by civilization.
- Suggested that tribes were "secondary" phenomena resulting from contact with pre-existing states and non-state groups.
- This contact created the ideology of "tribalism" as tribes defined themselves in response to encounters with others.
Tribal History Beyond Oppression
- Adivasis (tribal communities) had a complex history beyond oppression.
- They once had their own kingdoms in Central India.
- Some Rajput kingdoms emerged through stratification among tribal communities.
- Adivasis played roles as local militias, dominated plains people, and engaged in trade.
- Early contact with mainstream society occurred due to the capitalist economy's exploitation of resources and labor.
National Development v/s Tribal Development
Imperatives of Development
- Development priorities have influenced attitudes toward tribes and state policies.
- During the Nehruvian era, national development focused on large-scale infrastructure projects like dams, factories, and mines.
- Tribal areas, rich in minerals and forests, bore a disproportionate cost for the development of the rest of India.
- This form of development often favored the mainstream population at the expense of tribal communities.
Impact on Tribal Communities
- The exploitation of minerals and construction of hydroelectric power plants in tribal areas led to the dispossession of tribal lands.
- The loss of forests, crucial to many tribal livelihoods, had a significant negative impact.
- Forest exploitation began during British rule and continued post-independence.
- Transition to private land ownership disadvantaged tribal communities with their collective ownership traditions.
- Example: The Narmada dams project, where benefits and costs were unevenly distributed among communities and regions.
In-Migration of Non-Tribals
- Many tribal regions and states have seen heavy in-migration of non-tribal populations due to development pressures.
- This migration poses a threat to tribal communities and their cultures.
- It accelerates the exploitation of tribal resources.
- Example:
- Jharkhand's industrial areas have witnessed a dilution of the tribal population share.
- Most dramatic cases are in the North-East, such as Tripura, where the tribal population share was halved in a decade, reducing them to a minority.
- Arunachal Pradesh is also experiencing similar pressures.
Tribal Identity Today
Impact of Forced Incorporation
- Tribal identities today are shaped more by their interaction with mainstream society than by ancient tribal characteristics.
- This interaction, often unfavourable to tribal communities, has led to the formation of identities centered around resistance and opposition to the non-tribal world.
Positive Developments and Continuing Problems
- Achievements like statehood for Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh after prolonged struggles have had a positive impact.
- However, many states in the North-East have been living under special laws that restrict civil liberties for decades.
Emergence of an Educated Middle Class
- An educated middle class is gradually emerging among tribal communities, particularly in the North-East and other regions
- Education, coupled with reservation policies, is creating an urbanised professional class within tribal societies
- As tribal societies become more differentiated with internal divisions, various bases for asserting tribal identity are evolving
Key Issues Driving Tribal Movements
- Two main sets of issues drive tribal movements:
- control over essential economic resources such as land and forests
- matters related to ethnic-cultural identity.
- These issues can sometimes overlap but may also diverge as tribal society differentiates.
- The reasons for middle-class tribal identity assertion may differ from those of poor and uneducated tribals who join tribal movements.
- The future of tribal identity will be shaped by the interplay between internal dynamics and external forces.
XaXa on Tribal Middle Class
The rise in tribal identity assertions is linked to the emergence of a middle class within tribal society, influenced by modern education and occupations. This middle class has brought cultural, economic, and developmental issues to the forefront of tribal identity.
(Source: Virginius Xaxa, ‘Culture, Politics and Identity: The Case of the Tribes in India’, in John et al 2006)
Family & Kinship
Family and Kinship Overview
- Family's profound impact on our lives, encompassing both positive and negative emotions.
- Variety of family structures: nuclear, extended, male-headed, female-headed, matrilineal, patrilineal.
- Interconnectedness of family structures with broader societal structures like politics, economics, culture, and education.
- Factors leading to changes in family structures: migration, conflicts, deliberate choices (e.g., love marriages, acceptance of same-sex relationships).
- Significance of family structure changes in reflecting shifts in cultural norms and values.
- Challenges and resistance often accompany attempts to alter family and marriage norms.
- Dominance of discussions surrounding nuclear and extended family structures in the context of India.
Diverse Family Structures
- Family structures include nuclear (small, immediate family) and extended (relatives beyond the nuclear family).
- Variation in family leadership: male-headed and female-headed families.
- Line of descent can be matrilineal (tracing ancestry through the mother) or patrilineal (tracing ancestry through the father).
Interconnected with Society
- Family structures are intertwined with other societal structures, such as politics, economics, culture, and education.
- Changes in one area may lead to shifts in family composition and structure.
- For instance, migration can result in a higher number of female-headed families in certain regions.
- Work schedules in industries like software may prompt grandparents to assist with childcare, altering family composition.
Causes of Family Structure Changes
- Reasons for shifts in family structures vary, including migration, wars, and deliberate decisions.
- Some changes occur accidentally, while others are purposefully initiated.
- Examples of deliberate change include young adults choosing their spouses instead of adhering to traditional arranged marriages.
- Growing acceptance of same-sex relationships can also impact family structures.
Reflecting Cultural Shifts
- Changes in family structures often signify broader transformations in cultural norms and values.
- These shifts are essential but challenging to bring about.
- Both historical and contemporary evidence reveals resistance to changes in family and marriage norms.
- Societal attitudes towards relationships and family evolve over time.
India's Focus on Nuclear and Extended Families
- In India, discussions surrounding family structures have often centered on nuclear and extended families.
- These discussions provide insights into the complexities of family life in the Indian context.
Family Types
- Nuclear Family: Comprises parents and their children.
- Extended Family (Joint Family): Involves multiple couples and generations living together.
- Not Universally Dominant: Extended family not prevalent throughout India.
- Term Origin: "Joint family" not originally a native term, often translated from English.
Diverse Family Forms
- Residence Rules: Vary across societies, matrilocal and patrilocal.
- Inheritance Rules: Matrilineal and patrilineal systems.
- Authority Structure: Patriarchy and matriarchy.
- Matriarchy Theoretical: No historical or anthropological proof of matriarchy.
- Matrilineal Societies Exist: Women inherit property but lack control and decision-making power.
Chapter 4 - Market as a Social Institution
Important Personality
Adam Smith is known as the fountainhead of contemporary economic thought. Smith’s reputation rests on his five-book series ‘The Wealth of Nations’ which explained how rational self-interest in a free-market economy leads to economic well being.
Introduction - Sociology's Contribution to Economics
- Market Understanding: Economics focuses on how markets work, including price determination and investment impact. Sociology complements this by studying markets as social institutions embedded in culture.
- Adam Smith's Legacy: Adam Smith's "The Wealth of Nations" laid the foundation for economics. He viewed markets as systems emerging from individual transactions, unintentionally creating order.
- Economics vs. Sociology: Modern economics isolates the economy from social and political contexts, while sociology examines economic processes within a broader social framework.
- Socially Constructed Markets: Sociologists see markets as culturally constructed. They emphasize how specific social groups or classes control and organize markets, interconnected with broader social institutions.
- Socially Embedded Economies: Economies are "socially embedded," meaning they are intertwined with social processes, structures, and institutions. Sociology highlights these connections.
- Examples: Sociologists illustrate market embeddedness with examples like tribal haats and traditional business communities in colonial India, emphasizing how culture and society influence economic systems.
Weekly Markets in Tribes
- Central Role: Weekly markets are vital in agrarian societies, serving as hubs for economic and social activities.
- Regional and National Links: Periodic markets, including cattle markets, connect various regional and local economies, integrating them into the national economy and urban centers.
- Significance in Remote Areas: In hilly and forested regions, especially those inhabited by adivasis (indigenous peoples), where infrastructure is lacking, these markets are essential for both economic exchange and social interactions. They facilitate trade, marriages, and social gatherings.
- Historical Transformation: While weekly markets in tribal areas have ancient roots, their character has evolved over time. Colonial rule brought these remote regions under its control, leading to road construction and economic integration. Traders, moneylenders, and non-tribal settlers from the plains entered these areas, altering local economies significantly.
- Impact of Colonialism: Colonial policies led to the exploitation of forest and mineral resources in tribal areas. This resulted in the impoverishment of adivasis, many of whom lost their land to outsiders. Labor markets also emerged as tribals were recruited for plantations and mines.
- Bastar District Example: A study of a weekly market in Bastar district, mainly inhabited by the Gond adivasi group, exemplifies these dynamics
- Economic Relationships: Sellers at the market are often non-tribal caste Hindus, while buyers are mainly adivasis
Caste-Based Markets and Trading Networks in Pre-Colonial and Colonial India
Traditional Beliefs: Traditional accounts saw India's economy as unchanging until colonialism, with self-sufficient villages relying on non-market exchange. They claimed colonialism introduced a commercial money economy, transforming rural and urban areas.
Reality – Pre-Colonial Monetization: Recent research challenges this view, showing India's late pre-colonial period was already monetized, blurring the line between traditional and modern economies.
Sophisticated Trade: Pre-colonial India had advanced trading networks, exporting textiles, spices, and other goods globally.
Indigenous Merchants: India had organized manufacturing, indigenous merchant groups, and banking systems that supported domestic and international trade. Traditional trading communities were central to these networks.
Hundi System: Merchants used instruments like the "hundi" or bill of exchange as a form of credit, enabling long-distance trade. Hundi notes issued by one merchant could be honored by another merchant in a different part of the country. These transactions occurred primarily within the caste and kinship networks of trading communities.
Jajmani System: In many villages and regions, non-market exchange systems, such as the "jajmani system," coexisted with trading networks. The jajmani system was characterized by reciprocal labor and service arrangements among different caste groups, contributing to the local economy.
Case Study 2 - Bastar & Tamil Nadu
Adivasi Village Market in Bastar
- Dhorai, a remote market village in North Bastar district, Chattisgarh, is usually quiet, serving low-ranking State Forest service employees stationed there.
- On market days (Fridays), Dhorai transforms into a bustling place with parked trucks, forest officials in smart uniforms, and tribals bringing forest, field, and handmade produce.
- The market is a crowded, roughly quadrangular area with a central banyan tree and concentrically arranged thatched stalls.
Caste-based Trade among Nakarattars in Tamil Nadu
- Nakarattars engaged in caste-based money lending and deposits, relying on caste-defined relationships in business territory, residence, descent, marriage, and shared cult membership.
- Unlike modern Western banking, Nakarattar banking was caste-based, relying on shared reputation, decisions, and reserves within specific exchange spheres.
- Public trust in Nakarattars was upheld by these caste-based systems, not by a government-controlled central bank.
- Individual Nakarattars were involved in communal institutions managing capital accumulation and distribution
Social Organization of Markets - 'Traditional Business Communities' in India
Introduction:
- Many sociological studies in India focus on 'traditional merchant communities' or castes.
- Close connection between the caste system and the economy, including landholding and occupational differentiation.
- 'Vaisyas' are a significant varna (social class) representing merchants and businesspeople.
Caste Mobility:
- 'Vaisya' status can be claimed or aspired to and is not always a fixed identity.
- Some caste groups enter trade and claim 'Vaisya' status as they move up the social ladder.
- Complex relationship between caste identity and occupation.
Diverse Business Communities:
- Traditional business communities include 'Vaisyas' (e.g., banias), Parsis, Sindhis, Bohras, and Jains.
- Historical variation in social status; some merchant communities were marginalized, like the Banjaras during the colonial period.
Community Influence on Business:
- Specific business arenas often controlled by particular communities due to caste and kinship networks
- Businessmen prefer to do business within their own communities, creating caste monopolies in certain sectors
Colonialism and the Emergence of New Markets in India
Introduction
- Colonialism in India led to significant disruptions in production, trade, and agriculture.
- Example: Decline of the handloom industry due to cheap British textiles.
- Colonial period marked a turning point in India's economic history, connecting it more deeply to the world capitalist economy.
Impact of Colonialism:
- India shifted from being a major supplier of manufactured goods to a source of raw materials and agricultural products.
- Benefitted industrialising England while disrupting Indian industries.
- New groups, especially Europeans, entered trade, sometimes partnering with existing merchant communities or displacing them.
Continuity and Adaptation:
- Colonial expansion didn't completely overturn existing economic institutions
- Provided new opportunities for some merchant communities to improve their position by adapting to changing circumstances and retain power post-Independence
The Marwaris as an Example:
- Marwaris, a prominent Indian business community represented by families like the Birlas
- Gained prominence during colonial times by exploiting opportunities in colonial cities like Calcutta and expanding trade and moneylending
- Success based on extensive social networks, fostering trust for their banking system
- Some Marwari families evolved into modern industrialists, still holding significant control over India's industry today
Key Takeaways:
- The emergence of new business communities under colonialism and their evolution highlights the importance of social context in economic processes
- Social networks and trust played a crucial role in the success of these communities
- Colonialism reshaped India's economic landscape, with lasting effects even after Independence
Understanding Capitalism as a Social System
- Definition:
Capitalism is a system of commodity production, involving production for the market, primarily using wage labour.
- Founder and Critic:
Karl Marx, a founder of modern sociology, was a notable critic of capitalism, viewing it as inherently exploitative.
- Economic Systems as Social Systems:
According to Marx, all economic systems are social systems, underlined by relations of production, and consequently, form a specific class structure.
- Capitalism - Not Just Goods:
The economy in a capitalist system is not just about circulating goods but consists of relations between people connected through the production process.
- Labour as Commodity:
In capitalism, labour becomes a commodity as workers sell their labour power to earn wages, leading to class dichotomy.
- Two Basic Classes:
Capitalists: Own the means of production (e.g., factories).
Workers: Sell their labour to capitalists.
- Profit and Surplus Value:
Capitalists profit by paying workers less than the value of their production, extracting surplus value from their labour.
- Key Concepts:
Commodity Production: Production aimed at market exchange.
Relations of Production: The social relations connecting the people who use a given means of production within a particular mode of production.
Class Structure: The hierarchical organization of individuals within a society, often emerging from relations of production.
Surplus Value: The excess value produced by the labour of workers over the wages they are paid
Commoditisation and Consumption
Commodification
1. Commoditisation/Commodification:
It refers to the process where things not previously traded in markets become commodities.
Example: Bottled water is a relatively recent commodity.
2. Examples in Contemporary Society:
Labour and Skills: Can be bought and sold
Marriage Bureaus and Websites: Offer matchmaking services for a fee.
Private Institutes: Provide courses in personality development, spoken English, etc., for a fee
Education: The rise of privately-owned schools, colleges, and coaching classes.
3. Negative Effects
Critics like Marx argue that commodification has harmful social effects.
Controversies exist around the commodification of human organs and individuals
- Commodification in India:
Seen in the commodification of traditional processes like marriages and impartation of social skills, which were earlier family-driven.
Representation of socio-economic status through various commodities is prevalent in middle-class India.
Consumption
- Consumption and Symbolism
In capitalist societies, consumption attains symbolic meanings, representing socio-economic status or cultural preferences
Goods and services purchased and displayed convey messages about one's status in society
- Status Symbols
Coined by Max Weber, the term refers to goods that signify one's social status.
Examples: Brands of cell phones, models of cars.
- Weber on Lifestyle and Status:
Different classes and status groups are differentiated based on their lifestyles and the commodities they consume
- Advertising and Symbolism:
Advertisements attach symbolic meanings to consumer goods, appealing to status or culture, to market them effectively.
Consumption patterns and preferences are closely tied to social distinctions and communications in modern societies.
Globalisation
1. Definition
Refers to the interconnecting of regions globally—economically, culturally, and politically.
Encompasses the international movement of commodities, money, information, and people, aided by technology and infrastructure developments.
2. India’s Entry
India embraced globalisation post the late-1980s, transitioning from state-led development to liberalisation.
3. Integration of Markets
Central feature involves the integration and extension of markets worldwide, with fluctuations in one market affecting others.
Example: A downturn in the U.S. economy can impact India’s software industry, causing loss of business and jobs.
4. Indian Software and BPO Industries
They are vital connectors of India to the global economy, offering low-cost services and labour to the developed West.
A global market exists for Indian software labour and services.
5. Cultural Exchange and Commodification
Globalisation enables the rapid circulation of cultural products, people, and images, introducing them to new markets and exchange systems.
Example: The international marketing of Indian spirituality and knowledge systems like yoga and Ayurveda.
6. Tourism and Cultural Commodification:
The rise in international tourism illustrates the commodification of culture.
Example: The internationally marketed Pushkar camel fair in Rajasthan maintains its local social and economic relevance.
7. Pushkar Camel Fair:
This event is a blend of religion, commerce, and tourism, attracting camel traders, pilgrims, and foreign tourists, symbolising cultural exchange and commodification. Kartik Purnima Bathe in Pushkar Lake
8. Impact of Globalisation on Culture:
It introduces previously non-market products, services, and cultural elements into new exchange circuits.
The commodification of cultural and religious events reflects the expanding reach of market systems in globalisation.
9. Cultural and Economic Interlinking:
The globalisation of events like the Pushkar fair demonstrates the interconnection of local, regional, national, and international markets on cultural and economic levels.
10. Cultural and Symbolic Exchange
Globalisation promotes the interchange of cultural symbols, religious merits, and experiences, enriching the world’s cultural diversity.
Liberalisation
1. Definition of Liberalisation
Encompasses policies focused on privatisation, deregulation, and marketisation initiated in India in the late 1980s.
2. Policies under Liberalisation
Privatisation of public sector enterprises.
Reduction in tariffs and import duties.
Relaxation of government regulations on capital, labour, and trade.
Encouragement of foreign companies to set up industries in India.
3. Marketisation
The use of market-based processes to solve social, political, or economic problems as opposed to government regulations or policies.
Advocates believe it promotes efficiency and economic growth.
4. Impact on Indian Economy
Stimulated economic growth and opened up Indian markets to foreign companies.
Various sectors, like software and IT, benefit from access to global markets.
The presence of many foreign-branded goods not previously available.
5. Criticisms and Concerns
Some argue the negative net impact of liberalisation on India due to exposure to global competition, affecting sectors like agriculture and small manufacturing.
Reduction or withdrawal of government interference, support prices, and subsidies.
Privatisation and closure of public sectors have led to loss of employment in some sectors, promoting unorganised sector employment.
6. Changing Landscape of Markets
Markets in contemporary India vary from village haats to virtual stock exchanges and are integral social institutions linked to various aspects of social structure.
The circulation of goods, services, cultural symbols, and money is rapidly changing, impacting local to global trading networks.
7. Economic and Social Consequences
The liberalisation and the evolving market scenarios necessitate understanding the broader social and economic consequences and the constant transformation of markets in today’s world.
8. Agricultural Sector Challenges
Farmers face competition from international counterparts.
Earlier protection through support prices and subsidies is compromised, impacting the livelihood of many farmers.
9. Impact on Small Manufacturers
Exposure to global competition affects small manufacturers who struggle to compete with foreign goods and brands.
10. Societal Linkage
Markets are intertwined with societal structures like caste and class, and their evolution reflects the changing dynamics of social, symbolic, and economic exchanges in the globalised world.
Chapter 5 - Pattern of Social Inequality & Exclusion
Social Inequality and Exclusion
1. Definition and Dimensions:
Social Inequality and Exclusion refer to the systematic, structured, and patterned unequal distribution of resources and opportunities across different groups in society.
2. Nature of Social Inequality:
Not Individual but Group Phenomenon: Primarily about groups rather than individual differences.
Systematic and Structured: Follows definite patterns and is inherent to societal structures.
Linked with Economic Inequality: Often connected with economic disparities but is distinct from it.
3. Forms of Capital:
Economic Capital: Material assets and income.
Cultural Capital: Educational qualifications and status.
Social Capital: Networks of contacts and social associations.
These forms often overlap and are interconvertible.
4. Social Stratification:
Refers to society-wide systems that rank categories of people in a hierarchy, shaping identity, experiences, and access to resources.
- Characteristics:
Characteristic of Society: Not a function of individual differences, exists in societies with surplus production.
Persists Over Generations: Linked to inheritance and family, and positions are ascribed.
Supported by Beliefs: Maintained through ideologies that legitimize the hierarchy.
- Impact and Persistence:
- Ascription: Birth dictates social positions, opportunities, and access to resources
- Endogamy: Reinforces social inequalities by restricting marriage within the same caste or group
- Ideological Support: Systems of inequality persist due to widely held beliefs deeming them fair or inevitable
- Discrimination and Prejudice
- Prejudice: Pre-conceived negative or positive opinions or attitudes about another group, resistant to change and often based on stereotypes
- Discrimination: Actual unfair treatment or practices based on group membership, often subtle and justified with seemingly reasonable explanations
- Stereotypes
- Fixed, inflexible characterizations of groups, often created during colonization, generalize whole groups as homogeneous, ignoring individual variations and contexts
- Impact: Influence opinions and attitudes, leading to discriminatory practices and behaviors
- Varieties of Exclusion
- Not Just Economic: Includes gender, religion, ethnicity, language, caste, and disability-based discrimination and exclusion
- Crosses Socioeconomic Boundaries: Even privileged individuals can face exclusion and discrimination due to non-economic factors
- Example of Legitimised Inequality
- The caste system, justified by notions of purity and pollution, is an example where inequality is widely viewed as legitimate
- Resistance is often shown by those who experience exploitation and humiliation due to being at the bottom of the hierarchy
- Intersectionality
- Social inequality and exclusion often intersect with multiple identities and forms of discrimination, complicating the experiences and expressions of inequality and exclusion.
Social Exclusion
1. Definition
Social Exclusion refers to the systematic sidelining of individuals or groups from full participation in the wider society, limiting their access to opportunities, goods, and essential services available to the majority.
2. Systematic and Structural:
It is not accidental but results from the inherent structural features of society, focusing on a broad range of factors and sectors including education, health, transportation, etc.
3. Historical Context:
In India, exclusion and discrimination are historical and involve acute practices, specifically against different castes, genders, and religions. Movements arose at various times to protest these discriminations, but prejudices often persist and new ones emerge.
4. Limits of Legislation:
While legislation exists to combat exclusion and discrimination, it alone is not sufficient to produce lasting social change. Persistent social campaigns are necessary to transform societal awareness and sensitivity.
5. Colonial Impact:
During colonial rule, even privileged Indians faced discrimination and exclusion, fostering awareness about such practices and inspiring numerous social reform movements influenced by ideas of democracy and justice.
6. Focal Groups:
Dalits or Ex-Untouchable Castes, Adivasis or Tribal Communities, Women, and the Differently Abled are the prime focus, each having their unique stories of struggles and achievements due to severe social inequality and exclusion.
Transgender and Third-Gender Groups are also categorized under social exclusion, expanding the dimensions of gender and identities beyond male and female.
8. Transgender:
Refers to individuals who undergo gender conversion through choice or compulsions, highlighting the fluidity and choice in gender identities and challenging the conventional notion of unchanging male and female bodies.
9. Third Gender:
This category includes individuals who do not identify as strictly male or female, allowing alternate identifications. The identification can be based on self-understanding or be assigned by the group, family, or society. They have gained legal recognition in India, with rights to participate in elections
Caste and Tribe: Systems Justifying and Perpetuating Inequality
1. The Caste System as a Discriminatory System
The caste system in India is a historic system of social stratification that legitimises and enforces discriminatory and exclusionary practices based on individuals’ birth into particular castes.
2. Historical Classification and Hierarchy
Historically, the caste system categorised individuals by occupation and status, with each caste having a specific place in the hierarchy of social status. Generally, caste, occupation, and social status were interlinked, leaving little choice for individuals born into a certain caste regarding their professions.
3. Social and Economic Status
Ideally, social and economic status were supposed to be distinct. For instance, Brahmins, despite having the highest ritual status, were not supposed to amass wealth, while kings, despite their secular power, were subordinated to Brahmins in the ritual-religious sphere. However, in reality, high caste often correlated with high economic status and vice versa.
4. Modern Changes and Rigidity
In contemporary times, the link between caste and occupation is less rigid, allowing more occupational mobility. Additionally, the correlation between caste and economic status has weakened, with variations in economic conditions found within each caste.
5. Macro-Level Stability
Despite these shifts, at a macro level, caste-class correlation remains stable. The distinctions between castes of similar socio-economic statuses have weakened, but disparities between different socio-economic groupings are still prominent.
6. Persistent Disadvantages
While progress has been made, the high economic status sections of society are still primarily ‘upper’ caste, and the ‘lower’ castes predominantly occupy disadvantaged economic statuses. The prevalence of poverty and affluence continues to differ greatly across caste groups.
- Comparisons with Other Systems
The text hints at a comparison with the apartheid system, underscoring the caste system's institutionalised and systemic nature in discriminating and segregating people based on their birth and social standing
Untouchability in the Context of the Caste System
Definition and Scope:
‘Untouchability’ is a severe and dehumanizing form of discrimination intrinsic to the caste system, primarily affecting those perceived to be at the bottom of the purity-pollution scale. It is not confined to physical avoidance but extends to a wide array of stringent social sanctions, exclusion, and exploitation.
Pan-Indian Phenomenon → Untouchability is a widespread phenomenon in India
Dimensions
The dimensions of untouchability encompass exclusion, humiliation, subordination, and exploitation. The extremity of exclusionary practices is distinct for ‘untouchables’, with prohibitions on accessing communal resources like water and participating in shared religious and social activities.
Terminology
The communities subjected to untouchability have been labeled with various derogatory names over the centuries, carrying a strong pejorative charge. The usage of these derogatory terms is now criminalized. Mahatma Gandhi popularized the term ‘Harijan’ to counter the negative connotations, but the term ‘Dalit’, meaning ‘downtrodden’, is more widely accepted and used today, symbolizing the oppression and struggle of these communities.
Evolution of the Term ‘Dalit’
Although not coined by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, the term ‘Dalit’ resonates with his philosophy and the movement he led for empowerment. It gained prominence during the caste riots in Mumbai in the early 1970s and was used by the Dalit Panthers to assert their identity and demand rights and dignity.
Economic Exploitation:
Economic exploitation is intertwined with untouchability, manifesting through forced, unpaid, or underpaid labor and confiscation of property, reflecting the multifaceted oppression faced by Dalit communities
State and Non-State Initiatives Addressing Caste and Tribe Discrimination
- Historical Background
- Special programmes for Scheduled Tribes and Scheduled Castes were established pre-independence, initiated by the British Indian government in 1935 in the form of Schedules
- Post-Independence, these policies were continued and expanded, with significant additions including provisions for Other Backward Classes (OBCs) since the early 1990s.
- Reservation Policy
- It reserves seats for Scheduled Castes and Tribes in public life spheres, including legislatures, government jobs, and educational institutions
- The proportion of reserved seats correlates with the respective population percentages of these groups
- OBCs have a different determination method for reservation proportions.
- Legal Provisions and Amendments
- Caste Disabilities Removal Act of 1850
- Constitution Amendment (Ninety Third Amendment) Act of 2005
- The Constitution of India (1950) abolished untouchability (Article 17) and introduced reservation provisions
- The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act of 1989
- Limits of Legal Provisions
- The necessity for recurrent legislation highlights the persistence of caste-based discrimination despite legal prohibitions.
- Instances of discrimination and atrocities against Dalits and Adivasis persist, indicating that legal interventions alone are insufficient to eradicate such social practices.
- Dalit Assertion and Contributions
- Dalits have actively sought justice and dignity through political, agitational, and cultural fronts
- Historical figures like Jyotiba Phule, Iyotheedas, Periyar, and Ambedkar have initiated pre-independence struggles and movements
- Contemporary political organizations like the Bahujan Samaj Party and the Dalit Sangharsh Samiti have continued this legacy of Dalit political assertions
- Dalits have enriched Indian literature, contributing significantly in languages like Marathi, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu, and Hindi
The Other Backward Class (OBC)
- Definition and Composition
- The Constitution recognises groups, primarily identified by caste, that are socially and educationally backward but do not experience untouchability as ‘Other Backward Classes’ (OBCs)
- OBCs are neither part of the ‘forward’ castes nor the Dalits
- OBCs are diverse and include members from different religions.
- Historical Context
- The first government post-independence addressed the welfare of OBCs
- The First Backward Classes Commission led by Kaka Kalelkar in 1953, but its report was sidelined
- The OBC issue primarily became a state-level concern until the late 1970s
- The southern states had early movements and policies for OBCs due to historical agitation.
- Mandal Commission
- The Second Backward Classes Commission, headed by B.P. Mandal, brought the OBC issue back to the central level
- Implementation of the Mandal Commission report in 1990 made the OBC issue prominent in national politics. It was implemented by PM V P Singh
- Recent Developments
- There has been a resurgence of lower caste movements, including OBCs and Dalits, since the 1990s, particularly in north India
- The politicization of OBCs has translated their large population (around 41%) into substantial political influence.
- Disparities within OBCs
- There are significant disparities between upper OBCs, who are predominantly landed and influential in rural areas, and lower OBCs, who are economically disadvantaged
- Upper OBCs dominate in landholding and political representation but are under-represented in other spheres
- The situation of urban OBCs is comparable to that of the Scheduled Castes and Tribes.
Adivasi Struggles
- Background 1.1. Like Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes are recognized by the Indian Constitution as groups marked by poverty, powerlessness, and social stigma. 1.2. They were historically the ‘people of the forest,’ concentrated in hill and forest areas, though ecological isolation was never absolute. 1.3. The boundaries between ‘tribe’ and ‘caste’ are porous due to the long and close association with Hindu society and culture.
- Movement and Distribution 2.1. Movements of populations have led to areas with tribal concentration rather than exclusivity, except in the North-Eastern states. 2.2. Non-tribals have moved into traditionally tribal districts since the mid-nineteenth century, causing displacement and migrations of Adivasi people.
- Economic and Social Conditions 3.1. In areas of tribal concentration, Adivasis often live in more impoverished and exploited conditions compared to non-tribals. 3.2. These conditions have historical roots in the policies of accelerated resource extraction initiated by the colonial British government and continued post-independence.
- Struggles over Resources and Livelihood 4.1. The reservation of forest tracts and the policy of capital-intensive industrialization severely impacted Adivasi livelihoods, leading to displacements and resource alienation. 4.2. Projects like Sardar Sarovar dam and Polavaram dam have displaced hundreds of thousands of Adivasis, often without adequate compensation or rehabilitation.
- Post-Independence Scenario and Struggles 5.1. Post-independence, government monopolies over forests and resources continued, and Adivasi lands were acquired for industrial and developmental projects. 5.2. The liberalization policies of the 1990s have made it easier for corporate firms to acquire Adivasi lands, furthering their displacement and marginalization. 5.3. Adivasis have been waging struggles against ‘dikus’ (outsiders) and the state for their rights and livelihoods, achieving statehood for regions like Jharkhand and Chattisgarh.
- Political Awareness and Assertion 6.1. The term “Adivasi,” coined in the 1930s meaning ‘original inhabitants’, 6.2. Adivasi struggles are distinctive as they are concentrated in contiguous areas and have managed to demand states of their own, unlike Dalits 6.3 Biggest achievement is making of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh
The Struggle for Women’s Equality and Rights in India
The Social Reform Movements in the 19th Century:
- Raja Rammohun Roy spearheaded the 19th-century social reform in Bengal, focusing on abolishing practices like "sati" and advocating for the rights of women.
- Ranade emphasized the remarriage of widows and worked on establishing the Hindu Law allowing it.
- Jyotiba Phule fought against caste and gender discrimination, focusing on aiding women and the socially excluded castes.
- Sir Syed Ahmed Khan advocated for women's education within Muslim society, albeit within the constraints of their homes
- Dayanand Saraswati of the Arya Samaj, he stood for women’s education but sought for a curriculum that included instruction in religious principles, training in the arts of housekeeping and handicrafts and rearing of children.
Feminist Writings:
- Tarabai Shinde’s "Stree Purush Tulana" (1882): This work contrasted men and women's positions in society and protested against the prevailing double standards.
- Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain’s "Sultana’s Dream" (1905): This early science fiction work depicted a utopian world where gender roles were reversed.
Women’s Participation in the National Movement:
The Indian National Congress, in its Karachi Session in 1931, committed to women’s equality, emphasizing equal rights and universal adult suffrage. This inclusion was indicative of the incorporation of women's rights in the broader national agenda.
21st Century Challenges:
The declining sex ratio and the societal bias against the girl child represent the new challenges of gender inequality, signaling the persisting and evolving nature of the struggle for women's rights
Struggles of the Differently Abled
1. Social Construction of Disability
Differently abled individuals are rendered disabled more by societal structures than by physical or mental impairments.
Disability, often viewed through a biological lens, is significantly influenced by public perceptions and societal attitudes that often originate from cultural conceptions and historical practices.
2. Historical Invisibility:
Throughout history, differently abled individuals have existed in all societies, but their rights have only been recognized recently.
Anita Ghai, a notable activist and scholar on disability in India, compares the invisibility of the disabled to the protagonist of Ralph Ellison’s “Invisible Man.”
3. Cultural Attitudes and Labels:
In India, labels like ‘handicap,’ ‘crippled,’ ‘blind,’ and ‘deaf’ are synonymous with disability and are often used as insults.
Cultural emphasis on bodily perfection makes any deviation a symbol of abnormality and defect.Cultural conceptions link disability to fate, destiny, or past karma, framing disabled people as victims.
4. Poverty and Disability:
There is a close and complex relationship between poverty and disability.
Conditions of poverty like malnutrition, inadequate immunization, and overcrowded living conditions contribute to higher incidences of disability among the poor.
Disability can also exacerbate poverty by increasing isolation and economic strain on individuals and their families.
5. Advocacy and Awareness
Recent efforts and initiatives have started challenging and rethinking the concept of ‘disability,’ building a path toward more inclusive societies.
6. Educational Marginalization:
Disability remains a marginalized issue within the educational system, maintaining separate streams for disabled students and reinforcing inequality and exclusion.
The struggle against inequality provokes reconsideration of complex categorizations like religion, caste, gender, and region that interlink to form multifaceted identities
7. Lack of Accessibility in Courts:
Higher judiciary's policy excludes handicapped individuals from consideration for Judge posts, violating statutory mandates.
Many court buildings, including the High Court and the City Civil Court, lack disabled-friendly infrastructure, like ramps and elevators, which highlights the judiciary’s neglect towards the differently-abled
- Educational Challenges:
In regions where half of the children aged 5-14 are out of school, ensuring education for disabled children remains a significant challenge, especially in the context of segregated schooling.
Rural and urban slum parents tend to prioritize practical life improvements and employment-related education over formal schooling for their disabled children, reflecting diverse needs and expectations within the community
- Census 2011 Approach to Disability:
The Census 2011 collected disability data during the Population Enumeration phase through the ‘Household Schedule’, covering all types of households and including detailed instructions to enumerate disability accurately.
Chapter 6 - Challenges of Cultural Diversity
Note : Capital S State and small s state
Note: In this chapter, the word “State” has a capital S when it is used to denote the federal units within the Indian nation-state; the lower case ‘state’ is used for the broader conceptual category.
Importance of Identity
1. Stable Identity:
Humans need a sense of stable identity to operate in the world, prompting questions like "Who am I?" and "How am I different from others?" This stable identity is shaped significantly by socialization processes involving families and communities.
2. Community Identity:
Community identity is "ascriptive" and based on birth and "belonging." It is determined by birth and involves no choice or accomplishment on the part of the individuals. People often find security and satisfaction in belonging to communities in which their membership is accidental and unchosen.
3. Ascriptive Identities:
Ascriptive identities are characterized by their unconditional and inescapable nature. They are very hard to shake off and often create a total sense of belonging without any preconditions, unlike professional or team memberships which require demonstrations of skill or competence.
4. Emotional Attachment and Reaction:
The accidental and unconditional nature of community identity often leads to strong emotional attachments, causing people to react emotionally or violently to perceived threats to their community identity. This emotional attachment and reaction underscore the significance of overlapping circles of community ties in giving meaning to our world and sense of identity.
5. Universal Nature of Community Feeling:
Community feeling and ascriptive identities are universal in nature. Everyone has a "motherland, a mother tongue, a family, a faith…" This universality in a general sense can be seen as leading to an equal commitment and loyalty to one’s respective identities.
6. Conflict and Perception:
Conflicts involving communities are hard to deal with as each side perceives the other as an enemy, exaggerating the virtues of their own side and the vices of the other. Each side believes in the righteousness of their cause and constructs reversed mirror images of each other during conflicts, particularly evident in situations of war between nations.
Nation & Nation States
1. Definition of Nation
A nation is considered a large-scale community, or a “community of communities.” Members of a nation share the desire to be part of the same political collectivity, often aspiring to form a state. It’s hard to define but is generally understood to be based on common cultural, historical, and political institutions like shared religion, language, ethnicity, history, or regional culture.
2. Concept of State:
A state, as defined by Max Weber, is a body that successfully claims a monopoly of legitimate force in a particular territory.
It refers to an abstract entity consisting of a set of political-legal institutions claiming control over a particular geographical territory and the people living in it.
3. Nation-State Connection:
1. Soviet Union / Russia:
The Soviet Union, while it existed, illustrated that a single state could represent multiple nations.
It explicitly recognized over one hundred internal nationalities as distinct ‘nations,’ acknowledging the multi-national character of the state.
2. USA / Jewish Americans:
The concept of dual citizenship in the USA exemplifies the complex nature of nation-state relationships.
Jewish Americans can have citizenship in both Israel and the USA, demonstrating that members of a nation (in this instance, Jewish people) can be citizens or residents of different states.
3. Jamaica:
The Jamaican diaspora illustrates the dispersion of a nation's people across different states.
There are more Jamaicans living outside Jamaica than in Jamaica, suggesting that the notion of ‘resident’ and ‘non-resident’ members of a nation complicates the one-to-one bond between nation and state.
4. Cultural Diversity and State Policies:
States have historically been suspicious of cultural diversity, often promoting assimilationist or integrationist policies to forge a uniform set of cultural values and norms, usually those of the dominant social group. However, suppressing cultural diversity can be costly, potentially intensifying community identity and alienating minority communities. Therefore, allowing cultural diversity is considered good policy from both practical and principled points of view.
5. Communities and Nations:
There’s no hard distinction between a community and a nation conceptually; any community can potentially form a nation, but no specific community is guaranteed to form one. States often see community identities as dangerous rivals, leading to a tendency to favor a single, homogeneous national identity.
6. Diverse Forms of Community Identities:
Language, religion, ethnicity, and various other bases of community identity may or may not lead to nation formation. The variety in forms of community identities reflects the complexities and variations inherent in the conception of nation and state.
- Assimilation & Integration:
‘Assimilationist’ policies aim to erode cultural differences by persuading or forcing minority groups to adopt the values and norms of the dominant group, while ‘integrationist’ policies assert a single national identity in the public and political arena, relegating other cultural identities to the private domain, thus both strategically work towards establishing a singular national identity.
India as a Nation State
Overview:
- India is a highly diverse nation-state, with a vast array of languages, religions, and cultural practices.
- The Census of India 2011 records the population as about 1.21 billion people, making it one of the largest national populations in the world.
- India encompasses around 1,632 languages and dialects, with twenty-two of them recognized officially under the 8th Schedule of the Constitution.
Religious Diversity:
- Hindus constitute about 80% of the population, but they are diverse in terms of regions, beliefs, practices, castes, and languages.
- Muslims make up about 14.2% of the population, making India the world’s second-largest Muslim country.
- Other notable religious communities include Christians (2.3%), Sikhs (1.7%), Buddhists (0.7%), and Jains (0.4%).
Constitutional Provisions:
- The Constitution declares India a secular state, recognizing various communities explicitly.
- It provides substantial constitutional protection to minority religions.
- Unlike assimilationist or integrationist models, India allows religion, language, and other cultural elements a significant presence in the public sphere.
Issues and Successes:
- Some sections of the dominant Hindu community have expressed demands for an assimilationist model.
- The constant theme in state policy is ‘national integration,’ but it has not been ‘integrationist’ in the restrictive sense.
- India can be seen as a commendable example of a ‘state-nation,’ navigating and accommodating its inherent diversity relatively successfully, despite the common problems faced by nation-states
Regionalism in the Indian Context
1. Roots of Regionalism:
Regionalism in India is a consequence of the country’s diverse languages, cultures, tribes, and religions.
This diversity is geographically concentrated, and a sense of regional deprivation fuels regionalism.
Indian federalism serves as a way to accommodate regional sentiments and identities.
2. Post-Independence Developments:
Initially, India continued with the British-Indian arrangement of large provinces or ‘presidencies’.
Post adoption of the Constitution, these colonial units were reorganized into ethno-linguistic States due to strong popular agitations.
Language, coupled with regional and tribal identity, has been a potent instrument for forming ethno-national identities in India, overshadowing religion.
3. Formation of States:
Not all linguistic communities have achieved statehood. The creation of Chhatisgarh, Uttaranchal, and Jharkhand in 2000 considered factors like ethnicity, regional deprivation, and ecology along with language.
Currently, India has 29 States and 9 Union Territories.
The creation of states is not solely about respecting regional sentiments; it involves establishing an institutional structure supporting their autonomy within the federal structure.
4. Constitutional Provisions:
Constitutional provisions define the powers of the States and the Centre with lists of ‘subjects’ denoting exclusive and shared responsibilities.
The composition of the Rajya Sabha is determined by State legislatures, embedding regional representation at the national level.
5. Institutional Structures:
Periodic committees and commissions like the Finance Commission decide on Centre-State relations, including sharing of tax revenues.
State Planning Commissions prepare detailed State Plans as part of the Five Year Plan.
The Goods and Services Tax (GST) Council includes State members, ensuring states have a say in tax-related decisions
Linguistic Differences Between States
Background:
The concept of linguistic states traces back to the 1920s when the Indian National Congress reconstituted its provincial units based on language.
Leaders like Gandhi promised the formation of provinces based on language post-independence, but the Congress was initially reluctant to implement this due to fears of further divisions post-Partition.
However, intense movements and protests from various linguistic communities, notably the martyrdom of Potti Sriramulu, led to the formation of the States Reorganisation Commission (SRC) in 1956, which formalized the principle of linguistic states.
Impact on Unity:
Contrary to initial fears that linguistic states might undermine Indian unity, they have actually strengthened it.
The formation of linguistic states has allowed diverse linguistic communities to coexist within the broader Indian identity, proving the consistency between regional and national identities.
The linguistic states provided a platform for regional identities to flourish while remaining integral parts of the Indian union, ensuring the acknowledgment and representation of diverse linguistic communities.
Comparative Perspective:
The contrasting experiences of Sri Lanka and Pakistan serve as significant illustrations.
Sri Lanka’s enforcement of Sinhala as the sole official language, neglecting the Tamil-speaking minority, contributed to a prolonged civil war.
The disregard for the linguistic sentiments of Bengali speakers by the dominant Punjabi and Urdu speakers led to the division of Pakistan in 1971.
The acknowledgment and incorporation of linguistic diversity in India have helped in avoiding such divisions and conflicts, fostering a sense of unity in diversity.
Concluding Thoughts:
Linguistic states in India represent a successful model of accommodating diversity within the framework of national unity.
The ability to be Kannadiga, Bengali, Tamil, Gujarati, and simultaneously Indian, epitomizes the harmonious coexistence of multiple identities.
Although linguistic states have their own sets of disputes, the acknowledgment of linguistic diversity and rights has been instrumental in preventing major internal conflicts and divisions that have affected neighboring nations.
This approach has contributed to the stability and unity of India amidst its unparalleled diversity, portraying “Two languages, one nation” as opposed to “One language, fourteen or fifteen nations.”
Minority Rights and Nation Building in India
Context:
India, with its diverse populace comprising various ethnic, linguistic, and religious communities, stands as a paradigm of unity in diversity. The nation's journey to harmonization and national unity has been marked by the interplay between different communities and the state, emphasizing the ethos of inclusive nationalism and the spirit of democratic pluralism.
Inclusive Nationalism:
India's nationalist movement and post-colonial national identity were marked by an inclusive and democratic vision, recognizing the country's multifarious diversity.
Influenced by humanism, Indian nationalists like Mahatma Gandhi and Rabindranath Tagore envisioned a nation devoid of exclusion and discrimination.
The Constitution of India embedded this inclusive nationalism to ensure that the dominant group's culture, language, or religion is not synonymous with the nation-state.
Constitutional Provisions for Minorities:
The Constitution architects, led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, understood the importance of ensuring the freedom to practice religion and develop culture and language for all sections of people.
Special constitutional provisions were embedded to safeguard the rights of minority groups, reflecting the ethos of ‘unity in diversity.’
Sociological Perspective of Minorities:
The concept of minorities extends beyond numerical representation, encompassing groups with relative disadvantages and a strong sense of group solidarity.
Religious or cultural minorities like Parsis or Sikhs might be economically affluent but may still experience cultural disadvantage due to their small numbers relative to the majority.
The need for special protection for these minorities arises from their demographic imbalance and the dominance of the majority.
National Unity and Recognition of Rights:
The unwillingness of states to recognize the cultural and linguistic rights of diverse groups can lead to national disintegration, as evidenced by the formation of Bangladesh and the ethnic conflict in Sri Lanka.
Forcible imposition of language or religion can potentially weaken national unity, making the recognition and respect for differences pivotal.
The Indian Constitution affirms the recognition of the rights of different groups, strengthening Indian nationalism and unity.
Global Perspective:
The existence of minorities is a global phenomenon, and no nation-state consists exclusively of a single homogeneous cultural group.
Plurality of groups, attributed to modern capitalism, colonialism, and large-scale migration, is prevalent even in seemingly homogeneous nations.
Every nation, regardless of its size, harbors minorities in religious, ethnic, linguistic, or racial terms.
Difference between Nationalism of Gandhi and Tagore
Aspect | Mahatma Gandhi's Conceptualization of Nationalism | Rabindranath Tagore's Conceptualization of Nationalism |
Core Philosophy | Grassroots and Rural Orientation | Universalism and Humanism |
ㅤ | - Emphasized decentralized, self-reliant village republics. | - Envisioned nationalism with a broad, inclusive love for humanity and global interconnectedness. |
Economic Philosophy | Swadeshi and Self-Reliance | Synthesis of Cultures |
ㅤ | - Advocated for the use of indigenous goods and self-sufficiency to achieve economic independence. | - Advocated for cultural exchange, learning, and the interaction between different civilizations. |
Religious Philosophy | Religious Pluralism | Critique of Nationalism |
ㅤ | - Promoted religious unity and inter-faith dialogue for communal harmony. | - Critical of the aggressive and exclusionary nature of nationalism and highlighted its potential for conflict and suppression of individual freedoms. |
Moral Foundation | Ahimsa (Non-Violence) and Ethics | Education and Self-Realization |
ㅤ | - Central focus on non-violence and truth as guiding moral principles for individual and national development. | - Focused on individual enlightenment, spiritual evolution of humanity, and the role of education and the arts in fostering self-realization. |
Individual vs Nation | Moral and Ethical Development of Individual | Freedom and Individualism |
ㅤ | - Emphasized individual moral development as a precursor to national development. | - Emphasized the importance of personal freedom, creativity, and warned against the suppressive influence of the nation on the individual. |
Facts of Minority & Minority Rights
- Indian Constitution and Minorities
- Article 29
- Objective: Protects the interests of the minorities.
- Provisions:
- Section 1: Citizens have the right to conserve distinct language, script, or culture.
- Section 2: No denial of admission into any State-maintained educational institution on grounds of religion, race, caste, or language.
- Article 30
- Objective: Grants rights to minorities to establish educational institutions.
- Provisions:
- Section 1: Minorities, whether based on religion or language, can establish and administer educational institutions of their choice.
- Section 2: State shall not discriminate against any minority-managed educational institution.
- Key Concept: Cultural Diversity Protection: Aims to preserve the rich tapestry of Indian culture by ensuring the rights of minorities.
- Highlight: Non-discrimination and Autonomy in education for minorities.
- Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar
- Role: Chief architect of the Indian Constitution.
- Background: Fought against untouchability and the caste system. Buddhist revivalist, jurist, scholar, and political leader.
- Stance on Minority Protection:
- Quote: "Minorities are an explosive force which, if it erupts, can blow up the whole fabric of the state."
- Perspective: Emphasized protection of minority rights to prevent internal conflict and maintain state stability.
- Relative Size and Distribution of Religious Minorities
- Hindus:
- Population: 966 millions (80%).
- Note: Not homogenous, divided by caste.
- Muslims:
- Population: 172 millions (14.2%).
- Distribution: Scattered, majority in Jammu and Kashmir, significant in several states.
- Christians:
- Population: 27.8 million (2.3%).
- Distribution: Scattered, majority in North East states like Nagaland, Mizoram, and Meghalaya.
- Sikhs:
- Population: 21 million (1.7%).
- Major Concentration: Punjab (58%).
- Others:
- Buddhists: 8 million (0.7%), high proportions in Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
- Jains: 4.5 million (0.4%), concentrated in Maharashtra, Delhi, and Gujarat.
- Highlight: Diversity and Plurality in religious distribution and concentration across India.
- Rabindranath Tagore on Nationalism
- Core Concept: Evils of Exclusive Nationalism.
- Perspective:
- Critical of Western nationalism’s spirit of fostering hatred and ambitions, moral callousness, and propagation of unfavourable sentiments towards other races.
- Quote: "Never think for a moment that the hurt you inflict upon other races will not infect you."
- Concerns:
- Teaching of half-truths and persistent misrepresentation of other races.
- The perpetual humiliation of defeated nations.
- Ideas: Universal Humanism and Moral Rectitude: Advocated for the imbibing of mutual respect and understanding, shunning vanity and superiority.
Communalism & Secularism
Communalism
1.1 Definition and Context
1.1.1 Communalism is referred to as aggressive chauvinism based on religious identity, predominantly in the South Asian context.
1.1.2 It is a political ideology linked to religion, making it crucially distinct from mere adherence to personal faith.
1.1.3 The ordinary English meaning of "communal" is neutral, referring to something related to a community or collectivity.
1.1.4 In South Asian contexts, it bears a charged, potentially negative or positive, connotation depending on one’s stance.
1.2 Characteristics
1.2.1 It asserts that religious identity is paramount, overshadowing other aspects like occupation, caste, or economic status.
1.2.2 It constructs diverse groups as singular and homogeneous, and can foster an attitude of condemnation or aggression towards those with differing identities.
1.2.3 Communalism is not necessarily rooted in personal devoutness.
1.3 Impact and Historical Context
1.3.1 It has been a recurrent source of tension and violence, notably in India, causing communal riots from pre-Independence times.
1.3.2 The divide-and-rule policy of colonial rulers exacerbated such conflicts, but instances can be traced to pre-colonial times as well.
1.3.3 It contrasts with India’s syncretic heritage and tradition of religious pluralism evident in the Bhakti and Sufi movements.
Secularism
2.1 Definition and Conceptual Underpinnings
2.1.1 Secularism is a multifaceted concept; in Western contexts, it predominantly implies the separation of church and state.
2.1.2 In Indian contexts, it extends to imply equal respect for all religions and is often used as the opposite of communal.
2.1.3 It doesn’t necessarily imply hostility to religion and allows for the integration of religion in public life, like the declaration of public holidays for all religions.
2.2 Secularism in India
2.2.1 The Indian state’s commitment to secularism is juxtaposed with the protection of minorities.
2.2.2 There's a tension in maintaining secularism and providing special protection to minorities, often leading to accusations of ‘appeasement’ of minorities.
2.2.3 Supporters argue that such protection is essential to prevent the imposition of the majority community’s values and norms on minorities.
2.2.4 The concept of secularism in India includes not just separation or distancing, but also a commitment to equal respect for all religions.
2.3 Modernity and Secularisation
2.3.1 The rise of science and rationality along with the arrival of modernity has been associated with the progressive retreat of religion from public life in the Western context.
2.3.2 Secularisation denotes the conversion of religion from a mandatory obligation to a voluntary personal practice.
Highlighted Terms and Concepts
Communalism: Aggressive chauvinism based on religious identity.
Secularism: In Western contexts, implies separation of church and state; in Indian context, implies equal respect for all religions.
Secularisation: The progressive retreat of religion from public life, corresponding with the rise of modernity, science, and rationality.
Political Identity: Communalists believe in a political identity based on religion.
Religious Pluralism: India has a long tradition of religious pluralism and syncretic heritage, evident in movements like Bhakti and Sufi.
State and Civil Society
State
1.1. Definition & Role
- A central institution for managing cultural diversity within a nation.
- Claims to represent the nation and its people.
1.2. Authoritarian State
- Definition: A state where the people have no voice, and those in power are not accountable.
- Characteristics:
- Limits or abolishes civil liberties like freedom of speech and press.
- Inhibits freedom of political activity and the right to protection from wrongful use of authority.
1.3. Shortcomings
- Can turn authoritarian.
- May be insulated and unresponsive to people due to corruption, inefficiency, or lack of resources.
1.4. Importance
- Essential for avoiding authoritarianism.
- Management of cultural diversity hinges largely on the state's structure and responsiveness.
Civil Society
2.1. Definition & Characteristics
- The broad arena beyond the private domain of the family, outside the domains of both state and market.
- Consists of voluntary associations, organizations, or institutions created by groups of citizens.
- Not state-controlled and not purely commercial or profit-making entities.
2.2. Role & Significance
- Sphere of active citizenship where individuals pursue collective interests, influence the state, and seek support for various causes.
- Ensures state accountability.
- Provides a platform for advocacy and active participation in movements related to social issues.
2.3. Components
- Includes political parties, media institutions, trade unions, NGOs, religious organizations, etc.
2.4. Issues Addressed
- Diverse range, including tribal struggles for land rights, campaigns against violence, rehabilitation of displaced individuals, and more.
2.5. Media’s Role
- Increasingly active, especially visual and electronic segments, in monitoring state activities and exposing injustices.
Right to Information Act 2005
3.1. Overview & Origin
- Law enacted by the Parliament of India providing access to government records.
- Originated from an agitation in Rajasthan and grew into a nationwide campaign.
3.2. Provisions & Requirements
- Public authorities are obliged to reply expeditiously or within thirty days to any person requesting information.
- Requires every public authority to computerize their records for wide dissemination and proactive publication.
3.3. Specifications
- Citizens have the right to request any information, take copies and inspect documents, and obtain information in various forms.
3.4. Impact
- Overrode the restrictions of the Official Secrets Act 1923 and other special laws.
- Formal acknowledgment of citizens’ right to information, forcing the state to be more transparent and accountable.
Highlights
Authoritarian State: Opposite of a democratic state; people have no voice, and power holders are unaccountable, leading to loss of civil liberties.
Civil Society: The non-state, non-market sector where individuals voluntarily create institutions and organizations, playing a pivotal role in ensuring state accountability and addressing diverse social issues.
Right to Information Act 2005: A significant law ensuring transparency and accountability, allowing citizens access to government records, and overriding previous restrictive laws