upscvision.org
upscvision.org/
3️⃣
NCERT Notes/
2️⃣
✅Living Craft Tradition of India
Search
2️⃣

✅Living Craft Tradition of India

Chapter 1 - The Manuscript Painting Tradition
Introduction
INDIAN ART AND PAINTING
1. Vishnudharmottara Purana's Third Khanda: Chitrasutra
  • Introduction: Fifth-century text; source book for Indian art, especially painting.
  • Contents:
    • Pratima Lakshana: Art of image-making.
    • Techniques & Tools: Explains perception, 3D representation, materials, etc.
    • Canons of Painting:
      • Roopbheda: Appearance.
      • Pramana: Measurements and proportions.
      • Bhava: Expressions.
      • Lavanya yojana: Aesthetic composition.
      • Sadrishya: Resemblance.
      • Varnikabhanga: Use of brush and colors.
  • Legacy: Basis for various painting styles in India.
2. Medieval Paintings
  • Miniature Paintings:
    • Named due to small size.
    • Hand-held; never meant for wall display.
  • Mural Paintings: Decorated walls of patrons' mansions.
  • Manuscript Illustrations:
    • Pictorial translations of verses.
    • Themes: Ramayana, Bhagavata Purana, Gita Govinda, Ragamala, etc.
    • The text inscribed on the painting or its reverse.
  • Colophon Page:
    • Important page in a set.
    • Contains details like patron, artist, date, etc.
3. Challenges in Painting History
  • Lost Colophons: Many missing due to time, leading to gaps in knowledge.
  • Vulnerability: Susceptible to mishandling, and disasters.
  • Distribution:
    • Paintings traded, gifted, or taken to distant places.
    • Example: Mewar painting found with the Bundi king.
  • Reconstruction Challenges:
    • Few dated sets.
    • Gaps in chronological order.
    • Dispersed original sets across museums and private collections.
  • Dating Undated Sets: Based on style and circumstantial evidence.
Western Indian School of Painting
WESTERN INDIAN SCHOOL OF PAINTING
1. Geographic and Economic Context
  • Location: Mainly Gujarat, parts of Rajasthan and western Central India.
  • Reason for Flourishing: Wealth from trade routes, especially in Gujarat.
2. Jain School of Painting
  • Patronage: Largely by the Jain merchant community.
  • Shaastradaan: The act of donating illustrated paintings to Jain monasteries' libraries.
  • Popular Texts for Illustration:
    • Kalpasutra: Events from the lives of the 24 Tirthankaras.
    • Kalakacharyakatha: Adventures of Acharya Kalaka.
    • Uttaradhyana Sutra: Teachings of Mahavir.
    • Sangrahini Sutra: Cosmological concepts.
3. Painting Materials and Techniques
  • Medium: Initially on palm leaves, later on paper.
  • Styling:
    • Divided spaces for text and painting.
    • Bright colors, textile patterns, thin lines.
    • Schematic representations with segmented spaces.
4. Evolution and Stylistic Features
  • Timeframe: Most creative phase around 1350-1450.
  • Characteristics:
    • Use of gold and lapis lazuli.
    • Marginal figures like dancers and musicians.
    • Suggestive architectural elements.
    • Schematic landscapes.
5. Pre-Mughal or Indigenous Style
  • Patronage: By feudal lords, wealthy citizens during the late 15th and 16th centuries.
  • Themes: Hindu, Jain subjects; non-canonical stories.
  • Distinct Features:
    • Transparency of fabrics.
    • Specific hatchings for water bodies.
    • Formalized depictions of nature.
    • Predecessor to early 17th-century Rajasthani paintings.
6. Sultanate School of Painting
  • Origins: Interactions between Central Asian artists and local artists.
  • Characteristics:
    • The hybrid of Persian influence and indigenous styles.
    • Simplified landscapes, and decorative details.
  • Notable Work: Nimatnama from Mandu, during Nasir Shah Khalji's reign.
7. Additional Genres
  • Stories with Sufi undertones, e.g., Laurchanda paintings.
Pala School of Painting
1. Historical Context
  • Time Period: Pala period (750 CE - mid–12th century).
  • Significance: Represented the last significant phase of Buddhist art in India.
2. Centers of Art and Learning
  • Nalanda and Vikramsila Monasteries:
    • Major hubs for Buddhist learning.
    • Workshops for bronze image casting.
    • Manuscripts illustrated with Buddhist themes on palm leaves.
3. Dissemination of Pala Art
  • Influence: Students and pilgrims from South East Asia.
  • Spread: Through Nepal, Tibet, Burma, Sri Lanka, and Java.
  • Means: Carried bronze artifacts and illustrated manuscripts.
4. Characteristics of Pala Paintings
  • Styling:
    • Flowing, sinuous lines.
    • Subdued color tones.
  • Comparison: Sculptural styles at monasteries shared a similar language with painterly images.
  • Notable Work: Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita (Bodleian Library, Oxford) from Nalanda Monastery.
5. Decline of Pala Art
  • Cause: Weakening of the Pala dynasty and Muslim invasions.
  • Impact: Destruction of monasteries in the first half of the 13th century, ending Pala art.
Additional Concepts
1. Manuscripts and Paintings
  • Sravakapratikramasutra-curni by Vijayasimha:
    • Origin: Mewar
    • Written by: Kamalchandra
    • Date: 1260
    • Collection: Boston
  • Birth of Mahavir, Kalpasutra:
    • Date: 15th century
    • Location: Jain Bhandar, Rajasthan
2. Trishala’s Fourteen Dreams
  • Context: Dreams experienced by Mahavir's mother, Trishala, upon conceiving him.
  • The Dreams:
    • Elephant, Bull, Tiger, Goddess Shri, Kalash, Palanquin, Pond, Rivulet, Fire, Banners, Garlands, Heap of Jewels, Sun, Moon.
  • Interpretation:
    • Given by an astrologer: Trishala's son will either be a sovereign king or a significant saint and teacher.
3. Kalakacharyakatha - 1497
  • Key Figures:
    • Kalaka (lower right)
    • His captive sister (top left)
    • Donkey with magical powers spewing arrows at Kalaka's army.
    • Evil king inside a circular fort.
  • Collection: N. C. Mehta, Ahmedabad, Gujarat
4. Sangrahini Sutra - 17th Century
  • Theme: Planetary bodies and their distances.
  • Collection: N. C. Mehta, Ahmedabad, Gujarat
5. Indra Praising Devasano Pado
  • Source: Kalpasutra
  • Origin: Gujarat, about 1475
  • Collection: Boston
6. Other Notable Works
  • Chaurpanchasika:
    • Origin: Gujarat, 15th century
    • Collection: N. C. Mehta, Ahmedabad, Gujarat
  • Mitharam, Bhagvata Purana: 1550
  • Nimatnama:
    • Origin: Mandu, 1550
    • Collection: British Library, London
  • Lokeshvar, Astasahasrika Prajnaparamita:
    • Origin: Pala, 1050
    • Collection: National Museum, New Delhi
Chapter 2 - The Rajasthani School of Paintings
Introduction
1. Rajasthani Schools of Painting
  • Definition: Pertains to schools of painting from various princely kingdoms in present-day Rajasthan and parts of Madhya Pradesh.
  • Timeframe: 16th to early 19th centuries.
  • Regions included: Mewar, Bundi, Kota, Jaipur, Bikaner, Kishangarh, Jodhpur (Marwar), Malwa, Sirohi, and others.
2. Origin of the Term
  • Coined by: Scholar Anand Coomaraswamy in 1916.
  • Original Name: 'Rajput Paintings' as most patrons were Rajputs.
  • Purpose: Differentiate from the Mughal School of Painting.
  • Current Usage: The term 'Rajput Schools' is now obsolete; 'Rajasthani' and 'Pahari' are used instead.
3. Diverse Pictorial Styles
  • Characteristics: Varies in execution, color preferences, compositional elements, narration style, naturalism, and mannerism.
4. Painting Process and Materials
  • Canvas: Paintings were on "wastes" (layered thin sheets of handmade papers glued for thickness).
  • Sketching: Outlined in black or brown.
  • Colors: Predominantly from minerals and precious metals (gold and silver). Mixed with glue for binding.
  • Brushes: Made from camel and squirrel hair.
  • Finishing: Paintings were burnished with agate for a uniform shine.
5. Teamwork in Painting
  • Master Artist: Composed and created preliminary drawings.
  • Pupils/Experts: Specialized in coloring, portraiture, architecture, landscape, animals, etc.
  • Final Touches: Applied by the master artist.
  • Scribe: Wrote verses in allocated spaces.
Themes of Paintings: An Overview
1. Bhakti Movement Influence
  • 1.1. Vaishnavism: Gained popularity in the 16th century in western, northern, and central India.
  • 1.2. Krishna: Worshipped as God and an ideal lover, representing a synthesis of sensuousness and mysticism.
2. Prominent Texts & Their Themes
  • 2.1. Gita Govinda:
    • Composed by Jayadeva in the 12th century.
    • Describes the mystical love between Radha and Krishna.
  • 2.2. Rasamanjari:
    • By Bhanu Datta in the 14th century.
    • A treatise on rasa, classifying heroes and heroines based on age, appearance, and emotional states.
  • 2.3. Rasikapriya:
    • By Keshav Das in 1591.
    • Explores various emotional states of lovers through Radha and Krishna.
  • 2.4. Kavipriya:
    • Another work by Keshav Das.
    • Describes a love tale and climatic depictions of different months.
  • 2.5. Bihari Satsai:
    • Authored by Bihari Lal around 1662.
    • 700 verses (satsai) in the form of aphorisms and moral witticisms.
3. Painting Genres
  • 3.1. Ragamala Paintings: Pictorial interpretations of ragas and raginis.
  • 3.2. Bardic Legends: Includes tales like Dhola-Maru, Sohni-Mahiwal, Mrigavat, etc.
  • 3.3. Religious Texts: Favorites include Ramayana, Bhagvata Purana, Mahabharata, and Devi Mahatmya.
  • 3.4. Depictions in Paintings:
    • Darbar scenes and historical moments.
    • Hunting expeditions, wars, and victories.
    • Picnics, parties, performances, rituals, and festivals.
    • Portraits of royalty and city views.
    • Birds and animals.
Malwa School of Paintings
1. Malwa School Overview
  • 1.1. Timeline: Flourished between 1600 and 1700 CE.
  • 1.2. Distinction: Represented the Hindu Rajput courts and showcased two-dimensional simplistic language.
  • 1.3. Evolution: Progressed stylistically from Jain manuscripts to Chaurpanchashika manuscript paintings.
2. Origin & Territory
  • 1.1. Ambiguity: Unlike Rajasthani schools with specific origins, Malwa's exact center of origin is not precise.
  • 1.2. Potential Centers: Areas in Central India, including Mandu, Nusratgarh, and Narsyang Sahar.
  • 1.3. Dated Works: Includes the Amaru Shataka (1652 CE) and a Ragamala painting by Madho Das (1680 CE).
3. Datia Palace Collection
  • 1.1. Significance: A large number of Malwa paintings discovered here.
  • 1.2. Mural Paintings: Show Mughal influence, contrasting with works on paper that lean towards indigenous two-dimensional style.
  • 1.3. Patronage: Lack of mention of patron kings or portraits suggests paintings might have been acquired from traveling artists.
4. Popular Themes in Malwa Paintings
  • Ramayana, Bhagvata Purana, Amaru Shataka, Rasikapriya, Ragamala, and Baramasa.
Mewar School of Paintings
1. Mewar School Overview
  • 1.1. Significance: Considered an early center of painting in Rajasthan.
  • 1.2. Historical Context: Wars with the Mughals eradicated many early examples.
  • 1.3. Emergence: Associated with a set of Ragamala paintings from 1605 by artist Nisardin.
2. Influential Artists & Their Works
  • 2.1. Sahibdin: Painted the Ragamala (1628), Rasikapriya, Bhagvata Purana (1648), and Yuddha Kanda of Ramayana (1652).
  • 2.2. Manohar: Notable work includes Bal Kanda of Ramayana (1649).
  • 2.3. Jagannath: Painted the Bihari Satsai in 1719.
3. Themes & Styles
  • 3.1. Early Themes: Direct approach, simple compositions, decorative details, and vibrant colors.
  • 3.2. 18th Century: Shifted focus from textual representations to royal activities and pastimes.
  • 3.3. Preferred Palette: Bright colors, with dominant reds and yellows.
4. Nathdwara Influence
  • 4.1. Significance: Emerged as a painting school in the late 17th century.
  • 4.2. Pichhwais: Large backdrops painted on cloth for the deity Shrinathji during festivals.
5. Secular Shift in 18th-Century Mewar Painting
  • 5.1. Themes: Portraiture, court scenes, hunting, festivals, zenana activities, and sports.
  • 5.2. Narrative Techniques: Oblique aerial perspective for ambitious scale. Layered multiple episodes or spread a single episode over multiple folios.
Bundi School of Paintings
1. Bundi School Overview
  • 1.1. Period: Flourished in the 17th century.
  • 1.2. Characteristics: Known for vibrant color sense and excellent design.
2. Early Developments
  • 2.1. Bundi Ragamala (1591): One of the earliest paintings, originated from Chunar during Bhoj Singh's reign.
3. Major Patrons & Their Contributions
  • 3.1. Rao Chattar Sal (1631–1659): Made governor of Delhi by Shahjahan; played a key role in the Deccan conquest.
  • 3.2. Rao Bhao Singh (1659–1682): Patronized many artworks; and commissioned numerous portraits.
  • 3.3. Umed Singh (1749–1771): Paintings during his reign saw refinement in details and imbibed Deccani aesthetics.
  • 3.4. Bishen Singh (1771–1821): Loved hunting; his adventures were frequently depicted in paintings.
  • 3.5. Ram Singh (1821–1889): Decorated the chitrashalain of the Bundi palace with mural paintings.
4. Unique Features
  • 4.1. Nature: Emphasis on lush vegetation, landscapes, wildlife, and water bodies.
  • 4.2. Portraits: Equestrian portraits; unique depictions of elephants.
  • 4.3. Feminine Beauty: Women are depicted as petite with distinct facial and bodily features.
5. Early Artists & Influences
  • 5.1. Bundi Ragamala Artists: Shaykh Hasan, Shaykh Ali, and Shaykh Hatim; pupils of Mughal court artists.
6. Noteworthy Artworks
  • 6.1. Raga Dipak: Illustrates a night setting with a couple illuminated by four lamps.
  • 6.2. Baramasa: Atmospheric descriptions of the 12 months, based on Keshav Das' writings.
Kota School of Paintings
1. Kota School Introduction
  • 1.1. Origin: Evolved from the Bundi tradition, excelling in hunting scenes.
  • 1.2. Differentiation: Initially similar to Bundi, but developed a distinctive style by emphasizing architectural and figural exaggerations.
2. Historical Background
  • 2.1. Separation from Bundi: Kota became independent in 1625 when Jahangir awarded it to Madhu Singh.
  • 2.2. Start of Kota School: Commenced around the 1660s during Jagat Singh's reign.
3. Style Evolution
  • 3.1. Borrowing from Bundi: Initial paintings were heavily influenced by Bundi.
  • 3.2. Individuality: Kota's style became more distinct over time, especially in drawing.
  • 3.3. Landscape Emphasis: Kota artists were pioneers in treating landscape as the main subject.
4. Major Patrons & Their Influence
  • 4.1. Ram Singh I (1686–1708): Artists expanded their range of subjects during his reign.
  • 4.2. Umed Singh (1770–1819): Became king at age 10; his regent Zalim Singh governed while Umed Singh indulged in hunting. Many paintings from this period depict his hunting exploits.
5. Distinctive Features
  • 5.1. Execution: Paintings are spontaneous and calligraphic.
  • 5.2. Shading: Emphasis on marked shading, notably the double-lid eye.
  • 5.3. Expertise: Kota artists were particularly skilled in portraying animals and combat scenes.
Bikaner School of Paintings
1. Bikaner School Origins
  • 1.1. Foundation: Founded by Rao Bika Rathore in 1488.
  • 1.2. Library: Anup Singh (1669–1698) set up a library that became a repository for manuscripts and paintings.
  • 1.3. Influence: Due to close ties with the Mughals, Bikaner paintings show Mughal elegance and a muted color palette.
2. Key Artists & Influences
  • 2.1. Ustad Ali Raza: A master painter from Delhi employed by Karan Singh.
  • 2.2. Ruknuddin: Merged indigenous styles with Deccani and Mughal conventions. Painted texts like Ramayana and Durga Satpsati.
  • 2.3. Other Artists: Ibrahim, Nathu, Sahibdin, and Isa were prominent painters in Ruknuddin's atelier.
3. Studio (Mandi) System
  • 3.1. Function: Studios, or Mandis, were places where artists worked under a master artist's supervision.
  • 3.2. Master's Role: A common practice was for the master artist to finish or add final touches to paintings.
  • 3.3. Studio Tasks: Apart from creating new artwork, studios were responsible for repairs and making copies of older works.
4. Unique Features
  • 4.1. Artist Portraits: Bikaner School had a unique tradition of creating portraits of artists, inscribed with details about their lineage. They were often referred to as Ustas or Ustad.
  • 4.2. Style Attributes: Ruknuddin preferred soft color tones, while Ibrahim's works had a dreamlike quality with delicate figures.
5. Documentation
  • 5.1. Records: Bikaner School is one of the best-documented schools due to Bahis (royal diaries) and numerous inscriptions on paintings.
  • 5.2. Information: Inscriptions, mainly in Marwari (sometimes Persian), provide details like artist names, dates, production places, and commission reasons.
Kishangarh School of Paintings
1. Characteristics of Kishangarh Paintings
  • 1.1. Stylistic Traits: Among the most stylized Rajasthani miniatures.
  • 1.2. Facial Features: Arched eyebrows, lotus-petal eyes with pink tinge, drooping eyelids, slender nose, and thin lips.
2. Historical Background
  • 2.1. Establishment: The state of Kishangarh was founded by Kishan Singh in 1609.
  • 2.2. Man Singh's Era (1658–1706): Artists began working in the Kishangarh court.
  • 2.3. Raj Singh's Reign (1706–1748): Elongated human forms, extensive use of green, and panoramic landscapes.
3. Influence of Pushtimargiya Cult
  • 3.1. Raj Singh's Initiation: Adoption of the Pushtimargiya cult of Vallabhacharya.
  • 3.2. Theme Impact: Krishna Lila themes became predominant in Kishangarh art.
4. Nihal Chand's Contribution
  • 4.1. Role: Main artist for Sawant Singh (1735–1757).
  • 4.2. Themes: Painted Sawant Singh’s poetry on divine lovers, Radha and Krishna.
  • 4.3. Landscape: Courtly settings with vast panoramic landscapes.
  • 4.4. Color Palette: Accentuated colors used in depictions of vistas.
Jodhpur School of Paintings
1. Mughal Influence
  • 1.1. Onset: 16th century.
  • 1.2. Impact: Visual aesthetics seen in portraiture and court scenes.
  • 1.3. Indigenous Resistance: Prevailing folkish style resisted overpowering by Mughal influence.
2. Earliest Artworks
  • 2.1. Ragamala Set: Painted in Pali by artist Virji in 1623.
3. Maharaja Jaswant Singh's Era (1638–1678)
  • 3.1. Peak Period: Mid–17th century.
  • 3.2. Trends: Documentary painting through portraiture and depiction of court life.
  • 3.3. Patronage: Favored Krishna-related themes, prominently Bhagvata Purana.
4. Ajit Singh's Period (1679–1724)
  • 4.1. Historical Context: 25 years of war with Aurangzeb.
  • 4.2. Veer Durgadas Rathore: Legendary warrior who recaptured Marwar.
  • 4.3. Art Trend: Equestrian portraits celebrating Durgadas's heroism.
5. Reign of Man Singh (1803–1843)
  • 5.1. Notable Works: Ramayana (1804), Dhola-Maru, Panchatantra (1804), and Shiva Purana.
  • 5.2. Unique Representation: Rama’s Ayodhya is depicted as Jodhpur.
  • 5.3. Cultural Interweaving: Local architecture and costumes integrated into stories of Krishna, Rama, etc.
  • 5.4. Spiritual Influence: Follower of the Nath Sampradaya; paintings of him with Nath gurus and Nath Charita set.
6. Inscriptions on Paintings
  • 6.1. Limited Information: Rare mentions of dates, artist names, or painting locations until the 19th century.
Jaipur School of Paintings
1. Origins & Mughal Influence
  • 1.1. Initial Capital: Amer, located close to Mughal capitals (Agra & Delhi).
  • 1.2. Cordial Relations: Jaipur rulers, especially Raja Bharmal and his descendants, had friendly ties with Mughal emperors.
2. Establishment of Jaipur
  • 2.1. Founding Ruler: Sawai Jai Singh (1699–1743).
  • 2.2. Relocation: Shifted the capital from Amer to Jaipur in 1727.
  • 2.3. Mughal Influence: Invited Mughal painters from Delhi; reorganized the Suratkhana.
3. Sawai Jai Singh's Contributions
  • 3.1. Religious Focus: Drawn to Vaishnavite sect; patronized paintings of Radha and Krishna.
  • 3.2. Popular Themes: Rasikapriya, Gita Govinda, Baramasa, and Ragamala.
  • 3.3. Prominent Artists: Sahibram and Muhammad Shah.
4. Sawai Ishwari Singh (1743–1750)
  • 4.1. Patronage: Continued supporting the arts.
  • 4.2. Themes: Besides religious and literary, added scenes of leisure and hunts.
5. Sawai Madho Singh (1750–1767)
  • 5.1. Focus: Captured incidents from court life in paintings.
6. Sawai Pratap Singh's Era (1779–1803)
  • 6.1. Distinct Jaipur Style: Reduced Mughal influence; blended Mughal and indigenous styles.
  • 6.2. Patronage: Employed ~50 artists.
  • 6.3. Themes: Royal portraits, courtly life, Gita Govinda, Ragamala, Bhagvata Purana, etc.
7. Art Techniques and Features
  • 7.1. Copying Methods: Tracing and pouncing.
  • 7.2. Aesthetic Trends: Lavish use of gold by the early 19th century.
  • 7.3. Preferred Format: Large-size formats, including life-size portraits.
Additional Concepts
1. Bhagvata Purana & Depictions of Lord Krishna
  • 1.1. Theme: Popular medieval subject showcasing Lord Krishna's life and Leela.
  • 1.2. Example: Painting of Krishna killing demon Shaktasura (1680–1690) in National Museum, New Delhi.
  • 1.3. Style: Malwa style; compartmentalized scenes narrating various episodes.
2. Maru Ragini
  • 2.1. Importance: Provides vital documentary evidence regarding the artist, patron, date, and place.
  • 2.2. Story: Dhola-Maru ballad—depicts the struggles of Prince Dhola and Princess Maru.
  • 2.3. Description: The couple escaping together on a camel.
3. Raja Aniruddha Singh Hara & Equestrian Portrait
  • 3.1. Equestrian Portrait: By Tulchi Ram, 1680; depicts a perception of speed.
  • 3.2. Controversy: Names inscribed on a painting create confusion about its subject.
  • 3.3. Collection: National Museum, New Delhi.
4. Chaugan Players & Krishna Swinging and Radha in Sad Mood
  • 4.1. Chaugan Players: A painting of a princess playing Polo; combines styles from multiple schools.
  • 4.2. Krishna & Radha: Painted by Nuruddin in 1683; depicts a narrative from indoors to outdoors.
5. Bani Thani
  • 5.1. Background: Sawant Singh's muse, is celebrated for her beauty and elegance.
  • 5.2. Significance: Represents the blending of poetry and painting.
  • 5.3. Facial Features: Unique, with deeply curved eyes, arched eyebrows, and pointed nose.
6. Rama meets Members of his Family at Chitrakut
  • 6.1. Theme: Depicts Bharat's visit to persuade Rama to return to Ayodhya.
  • 6.2. Setting: Chitrakut, with plain huts in a rural setting.
  • 6.3. Narrative: Continuous story from left to right of the painting.
7. Ragamala Paintings
  • 1.1. Definition: Paintings that envision ragas in divine or human forms.
  • 1.2. Mood & Time: Each raga corresponds to a specific mood, time of day, and season.
  • 1.3. Organization: Albums typically have 36 or 42 folios, structured as families.
  • 1.4. Main Ragas: Bhairava, Malkos, Hindol, Dipak, Megha, and Shri.
8. Schools of Painting
  • 2.1. Mughal School: Dominated in the 16th century from Delhi, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, and Lahore.
  • 2.2. Provincial Mughal: Found across India; a mix of Mughal and local elements.
  • 2.3. Deccani School: Flourished in Ahmednagar, Bijapur, Golconda, Hyderabad from the 16th century.
  • 2.4. Rajasthani School: Rose to prominence in late 16th and early 17th century.
  • 2.5. Pahari School: Gained traction in the late 17th and early 18th centuries.
9. Notable Paintings & Locations
  • 3.1. Krishna & Gopis: Mewar, 1550, Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj Vastu Sangrahalaya, Mumbai.
  • 3.2. Raga Dipak: Bundi, 1519, Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi.
  • 3.3. Maharana Jagat Singh II: 1744, Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York.
  • 3.4. Krishna as Shrinathji: Nathdwara, 1800, National Museum, New Delhi.
  • 3.5. Dhola & Maru: Jodhpur, 1810, National Museum, New Delhi.
  • 3.6. The Hour of Godhuli: Jaipur, 1780, National Museum, New Delhi.
Chapter 3 - The Mughal School of Miniature Paintings
Introduction
1. Mughal Painting
  • 1.1. Definition: Miniature painting style from northern India, spanning the 16th to mid-19th century.
  • 1.2. Characteristics: Known for sophisticated techniques and a wide array of subjects and themes.
  • 1.3. Influence: Paved the way for various subsequent Indian painting schools and styles.
2. Mughal Patronage
  • 2.1. Arts Supported: Embraced diverse arts such as calligraphy, architecture, painting, bookmaking, and book illustration.
  • 2.2. Contribution: Each Mughal successor added value based on personal preferences, enhancing India's art scene.
  • 2.3. Significance: For a comprehensive understanding of Mughal Painting, studying the Mughal dynasty's political history and genealogy is crucial.
Influences of Mughal Paintings
1. Mughal Miniature Painting
  • 1.1. Definition: A blend of indigenous, Persian, and European themes and styles.
  • 1.2. Characteristics: Reflects synthesis of various cultural influences.
  • 1.3. Significance: Represents a unified vision of diverse tastes, philosophies, and faiths.
  • 1.4. Comparison: Surpasses conventional Indian and Iranian art of its era.
2. Influences and Integration
  • 2.1. Indo-Iranian Blend: Mughal courts integrated Indian and Iranian art, primarily in the early years.
  • 2.2. Diverse Artist Origins: Both Indian and Iranian artists contributed, enriching the Mughal art form.
  • 2.3. Historical Continuation: The Mughal style emerged from a background of rich Indian art traditions.
  • 2.4. Interaction with Other Styles: The style was influenced by pre-existing Indian and Persian art forms.
3. Patronage
  • 3.1. Role: Mughal patrons played a vital role in the evolution and proliferation of Mughal painting.
  • 3.2. Artistic Preferences: Their choices in subjects and aesthetics shaped the Mughal art narrative.
  • 3.3. Upcoming Segment: The chapter will delve into the chronological development of Mughal miniature painting.
Early Mughal Painting
1. Early Mughal Painting
  • 1.1. Babur (1526)
    • Descendent of Emperor Timur and Chaghtai Turk.
    • Merged Persia and Central Asia's cultural aesthetics.
    • Authored "Baburnama" showcasing his love for India and the arts.
    • Mentioned artists like Bihzad and Shah Muzaffar in memoirs.
  • 1.2. Humayun (1530)
    • Dethroned by Sher Khan, found refuge in Safavid Persian ruler Shah Tahmasp's court.
    • Influenced by Safavid art during exile.
    • Brought Persian artists Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd us Samad to India.
    • Founded the Nigaar Khana (painting workshop).
    • Initiated the illustration of Hamza Nama.
2. Akbar's Patronage
  • 2.1. Cultural Integration
    • Translated and illustrated revered Hindu texts like Mahabharata (Razm Nama) and Ramayana.
    • Employed over 100 artists, both Persian and Indian.
    • Commissioned Akbar Nama, detailing his life.
  • 2.2. Signature Works
    • Hamza Nama: Large cloth-based paintings of Hamza's stories, completed over 15 years.
    • Princes of the House of Timur (1545-50): Evolving portraiture showing Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan.
3. Jahangir's Aesthetic Evolution
  • 3.1. Personal Taste
    • Valued delicate observations and fine details.
    • Encouraged naturalistic representation.
  • 3.2. European Influence
    • Fascinated by European art and Christian themes.
    • Mughal art became a blend of indigenous, Persian, and European styles.
  • 3.3. Signature Works
    • Jahangir in Darbar, Jahangir's Dream, Jahangir enthroned on an Hourglass.
4. Shah Jahan's Magnificence
  • 4.1. Artistic Shift
    • Preferred idealization and stylization over naturalism.
    • Emphasized subliminal qualities and exalted beautification.
  • 4.2. Signature Projects
    • Padshahnama: Documenting his reign's splendor.
    • Mughal art influenced European artists like Rembrandt.
5. Dara Shikoh and Aurangzeb
  • 5.1. Dara Shikoh
    • A liberal Mughal with a commitment to Sufi mysticism.
    • Depicted with sages in a garden painting.
  • 5.2. Aurangzeb
    • Prioritized empire expansion.
    • Mughal atelier continued under his rule but without significant emphasis.
Later Mughal Painting
1. Decline of Mughal Painting Patronage
  • 1.1. Shift of Artists
    • Skilled artists departed from the Mughal atelier due to diminished patronage.
    • Joined provincial Mughal rulers aiming to depict their dynasty's grandeur.
2. Last Remnants of Mughal Miniature Style
  • 2.1. Muhammad Shah Rangila to Bahadur Shah Zafar
    • Few masterpieces were produced, but they were the final traces of the Mughal miniature style.
  • 2.2. Bahadur Shah Zafar (1838)
    • Last Mughal ruler, a poet, scholar, and connoisseur.
    • Exiled to Burma by the British post the Indian Revolt of 1857.
3. Changing Political and Art Landscape
  • 3.1. English Ascendancy & Regional Unrest
    • Altered India's art scenario.
    • Painters adapted to the changing tastes of patrons, evolving subject matters, and visual language.
  • 3.2. Convergence with Other Styles
    • The Mughal miniature style merged into Provincial and Company School styles.
Process of Mughal Paintings
1. Mughal Miniatures: Context
  • 1.1. Origin
    • Mughal miniatures primarily belonged to manuscripts and royal albums.
    • Visuals and text coexisted in the same format.
2. Creation Process
  • 2.1. Paper Preparation
    • Handmade paper sheets were fashioned to match the intended manuscript size.
  • 2.2. Layout Design
    • Specific spaces were designated for the artist to fill with visual compositions.
    • The remaining areas were ruled and populated with text.
  • 2.3. Artistic Process
    • Post-text addition, artists were handed the pages.
    • 2.3.1. Composition (tarh): Initial stage where the artist decides on the visual layout.
    • 2.3.2. Portraits (chiharanama): Introduction of characters or subjects.
    • 2.3.3. Coloring (rangamizi): Final stage where vibrant colors were applied to bring the artwork to life.
Colours and Technique of Mughal Paintings
1. Materials and Base
  • 1.1. Paper
    • Handmade and specially prepared for Mughal paintings.
2. Colour and Technique
  • 2.1. Sources
    • Opaque colours are derived from natural sources.
    • Pigments are ground and mixed for desired shades.
  • 2.2. Application
    • Brushes crafted from squirrel or kitten hair.
  • 2.3. Collaboration
    • Typically, a group effort within workshops.
    • Tasks distributed based on specialization: draft drawing, grinding colours, filling in, and detailing.
    • Some artworks are produced solely by one artist.
  • 2.4. Incentives
    • Artists are rewarded with bonuses and raises based on work quality.
    • Master artists held esteemed positions in royal ateliers.
  • 2.5. Final Touches
    • Agate gemstone is used for burnishing to set colours and impart radiance.
3. Pigments and Colours
  • 3.1. Sources and Colours
    • Vermilion from cinnabar.
    • Ultramarine from Lapis Lazuli.
    • Bright yellow from orpiment.
    • White from ground shells.
    • Black from charcoal (lampblack).
  • 3.2. Luxury Elements
    • Gold and silver powders are added to enhance the artwork's opulence.
Additional Concepts
1. The Mughal Atelier
  • 1.1. Composition
    • Included calligraphers, painters, gilders, and binders.
  • 1.2. Purpose
    • Documented significant events, personalities, and interests of emperors.
    • Served as intellectual stimulation and were meant for royal eyes only.
  • 1.3. Paintings' Nature
    • Part of manuscripts and albums.
2. Mughal vs Indigenous Styles
  • 2.1. Indigenous Style
    • Emphasized flat perspective, bold lines, vivid colors, and strong figure modeling.
  • 2.2. Mughal Style
    • Noted for its subtlety, finesse, and optical realism.
    • Featured three-dimensional figures, royal court scenes, portraits, and accurate flora/fauna depictions.
    • Introduced a new level of sophistication to Indian arts.
3. Noteworthy Mughal Paintings
  • 3.1. Noah’s Ark
    • Artist: Miskin.
    • Depicts Prophet Noah in the ark saving animals from God's flood.
  • 3.2. Krishna Lifts Mount Govardhan
    • Artist: Miskin.
    • Depicts Lord Krishna lifting a mountain to protect villagers from rain sent by God Indra.
  • 3.3. Falcon on a Bird Rest
    • Artist: Ustad Mansur.
    • Depicts a falcon, reflecting Jahangir's love for falcons.
  • 3.4. Zebra
    • Artist: Ustad Mansur.
    • An Ethiopian zebra presented to Jahangir, later added to Shah Jahan's royal album.
  • 3.5. The Marriage Procession of Dara Shikoh
    • Artist: Haji Madni.
    • Portrays the marriage procession of Dara Shikoh, Shah Jahan's eldest son.
Chapter 4 - The Deccani School of Paintings
Introduction
1. Deccani Painting History
  • 1.1. Timeframe
    • Primarily from the late sixteenth century to the 1680s, when the Mughals conquered the Deccan.
    • Continued under the Asafiya dynasty and into the 19th century.
    • Witnessed in the provincial courts of Rajas and Nawabs in the State of Hyderabad under the Nizam.
2. Deccani Style's Recognition
  • 2.1. Earlier Views
    • Was categorized under Indo-Persian art.
    • Perceived as Middle Eastern, Safavid, Persian, Turkish, and Mughal.
  • 2.2. Modern Understanding
    • Recognized as a distinct school, sustained by rulers with unique political and cultural visions.
    • These rulers nurtured artists and commissioned works fitting their sensibilities and governance needs.
3. Artistic Inclinations
  • 3.1. Portraiture
    • Portrayal of historical and religious figures was common, not just unique to Mughal art.
    • Similar inclinations were seen in Safavid and Ottoman Schools of Painting.
    • Highly documentary nature of portraits unique in Asian Islamic art and Mughal art.
4. Deccani Painting Region & Features
  • 4.1. Location
    • Southern India, beyond the Vindhya mountain range.
  • 4.2. Distinct Qualities
    • Nurtured under Sultans of the Deccan in the 16th and 17th centuries.
    • Bijapur, Golconda, and Ahmadnagar kingdoms developed a distinct court painting style.
  • 4.3. Characteristics
    • Sensuality, intense colors, affinity to regional aesthetics.
    • Dense composition with a strong aura of romance.
    • Eloquent, natural, and vivid expression.
Ahmadnagar School of Paintings
1. Ahmadnagar School of Painting
  • 1.1. Origin
    • The earliest examples are found in poems celebrating the reign of Hussain Nizam Shah I (1553–1565).
  • 1.2. Characteristics
    • 12 miniatures primarily depict battle scenes.
    • Noteworthy ones portray the queen in vibrant colors and sensuous lines.
2. Influences and Style
  • 2.1. Northern Tradition
    • Queen's representation is reminiscent of pre-Mughal painting from Malwa and Ahmedabad.
    • Women are depicted with choli, long braided pigtails, and a scarf—a blend of northern and southern styles.
  • 2.2. Palette and Landscape
    • Richer and more brilliant than northern manuscripts from the Mughal atelier.
    • High circular horizon and gold sky influenced by Persian aesthetics.
3. Ragamala Paintings
  • 3.1. Features
    • Females with buns at the nape, resembling Lepakshi murals.
    • Landscape with neutral ground and architectural domes.
    • Male attire, including the jama and pagri, shows Northern influence.
4. Persian and Bukhara Influence
  • 4.1. Traits
    • Costume styles, horizons, and other elements were influenced by northern India and Persia.
  • 4.2. Bukhara Artists
    • Believed to have worked in the Deccan, as supported by the Gulistan manuscript of 1567.
    • A manuscript in Bankipore Library, signed by scribe Yusuf, dedicated to Ibrahim Qutb Shah of Golconda (1550–1580) displays the Bukhara idiom.
Bijapur School of Paintings
  • 1.1. Noteworthy Works
    • Nujum al-Ulum dated 1570: Encyclopaedia with 876 miniatures illustrating weapons, utensils, and constellations.
  • 1.2. Characteristics
    • Women are depicted as tall and slender in South Indian dress, similar to the Ragamala paintings.
2. Patrons and Influences
  • 2.1. Royal Patrons
    • Ali Adil Shah I (1558–1580) and Ibrahim II (1580–1627).
    • Ibrahim II owned the Nujum al-Ulum manuscript and likely commissioned the Ragamala series in the 1590s.
  • 2.2. Cultural Connections
    • Bijapur had ties with Turkey; astronomical illustrations possibly inspired by Ottoman Turkish manuscripts.
    • Adil Shah Court's aestheticism was evident in brilliant coloring and simplified compositions.
3. Specific Artworks
  • 3.1. Throne of Prosperity
    • Symbolic diagram with seven stages.
    • Structure reminiscent of Gujarati homes or Deccani temples.
    • Coloring is influenced by Islamic Persian tradition.
  • 3.2. Deccani Painting: Yogini
    • Represents an individual devoted to yoga and spiritual exploration.
    • Vertical composition, with the standing figure of the Yogini.
    • The Yogini is shown interacting with a myna bird, adorned with jewelry, and surrounded by exquisite flora.
Golconda School of Paintings
1. Golconda School of Painting Background
  • 1.1. Historical Context
    • Became independent in 1512.
    • Wealthiest Deccan kingdom by the late 16th century due to trade and diamond discovery.
2. Golconda's Art Influence and Popularity
  • 2.1. Trade Influence
    • Trade with Persia popularized painted cottons.
  • 2.2. European Recognition
    • Dutch merchants carried sultan portraits to Europe in the 17th century.
  • 2.3. Unique Artistic Features
    • Wall hangings as large as eight feet high.
    • Pictorial designs with architectural settings.
3. Noteworthy Works and Characteristics
  • 3.1. Diwan of Hafiz (1463)
    • Five miniatures showcasing court scenes.
    • Depiction of a young ruler with a Deccani sword.
    • Lavish use of gold and deep azure sky.
    • Dance performances for royal entertainment.
    • Notable use of the color purple; instances of blue animals.
  • 3.2. Portrait of Muhammad Qutb Shah (1611–1626)
    • Depicts the ruler in a typical Golconda dress.
    • Combination of symmetry and Mughal influence.
  • 3.3. Sufi Poem Manuscript
    • Over 20 miniatures with abundant use of gold.
    • Distinctive sky coloring in gold and blue bands.
    • Costumes reflecting fashion under Ibrahim II of Bijapur.
    • Richly colored Deccani-type trees with tinted edges.
    • A unique depiction of a tall woman communicating with a bird.
Additional Concepts
1. Overview of Golconda School of Painting
  • 1.1. Historical Context
    • Golconda was known for its wealth due to trade, especially in diamonds, and its gold artwork.
  • 1.2. Popular Artworks
    • European recognition through Dutch merchants.
    • Use of large wall hangings.
    • Influence from Persian, Deccani, and Indian visual traditions.
2. Notable Paintings and Their Features
  • 2.1. "Sultan Adil Shah II playing Tambura"
    • Depicts the sultan with a musical instrument.
    • Found in the National Museum, Prague.
  • 2.2. "Composite Horse"
    • A surreal painting combining human figures to form a horse.
    • Deep brown and blue color scheme.
  • 2.3. "Sultan Ibrahim Adil Shah II hawking"
    • Shows the sultan with a hawk amidst vibrant and energetic surroundings.
    • The mix of Persian influence and native inspiration.
  • 2.4. "Ragini Pathamsika of Raga Hindola"
    • A musical-themed painting with women in a pavilion.
    • Vibrant use of red and green.
  • 2.5. "Sultan Abdullah Qutb Shah"
    • Portrait of the ruler of Bijapur holding a sword.
    • The halo around the head indicates divinity.
  • 2.6. "Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya and Amir Khusrau"
    • Depicts the Sufi saint with his disciple playing music.
    • Highlights the cultural practice of qawwali.
  • 2.7. "Chand Bibi playing Polo"
    • Illustrates the Queen of Bijapur playing equestrian polo.
    • Chand Bibi is known for resisting Mughal political advancements.
3. Unique Characteristics
  • 3.1. Influence
    • Strong Persian influence combined with native Indian traditions.
  • 3.2. Coloring
    • Use of gold, deep blues, and vibrant colors.
  • 3.3. Themes
    • Often highlighted royals, music, and religious figures.
  • 3.4. Style
    • Combination of symmetrical and Mughal influence.
Chapter 5 - The Pahari School of Paintings
Introduction
1. Introduction to Pahari Painting
  • 1.1. Origin and Meaning
    • Pahari translates to 'hilly or mountainous'.
    • Centres of Pahari painting include Basohli, Guler, Kangra, etc., in the western Himalayas from the 17th to 19th century.
  • 1.2. Evolution
    • Started with the bold Basohli style.
    • Evolved to the refined Kangra School via the Guler or pre-Kangra phase.
2. Challenges in Classification
  • 2.1. Stylistic Overlaps
    • Pahari paintings have similarities with Mughal, Rajasthani, and Deccani styles.
  • 2.2. Lack of Dated Materials
    • Few dated resources and inscriptions hinder clear categorization.
3. Influences and Origins
  • 3.1. Mughal and Rajasthani Influences
    • Likely introduced through relationships with Rajasthani royal courts or examples of the Provincial Mughal style.
  • 3.2. Basohli Style
    • Earliest recognized pictorial language in Pahari painting.
4. Role of the Seu Family
  • 4.1. B. N. Goswamy's Perspective
    • Attributes Pahari style evolution to the artist family of Pandit Seu.
    • Emphasizes the family's role over regional influences.
  • 4.2. Shift in Styles
    • The early 18th century saw a Basohli-like style.
    • The mid-18th century brought the pre-Kangra phase, leading to the Kangra style.
5. Possible Causes of Stylistic Shifts
  • 5.1. Introduction of New Painting Styles
    • Paintings, possibly introduced by rulers, traders, or artists, influenced local Pahari art.
  • 5.2. Mughal Atelier Influence
    • While some believe Mughal artists directly influenced Pahari art, others, like Goswamy, argue it was the naturalism in these paintings that attracted Pahari artists.
6. Characteristics of New Style
  • 6.1. Naturalism
    • Became a central theme in the evolving style.
  • 6.2. Themes and Prototypes
    • Included daily routines, royal occasions, and a new idealized female form.
Basohli School
1. Basohli School of Painting
  • 1.1. Origin
    • Located in the hill states.
    • The first remarkable works were seen during the reign of Kirpal Pal (1678-1695).
  • 1.2. Characteristics
    • Strong use of primary colors and warm yellows.
    • Unique representation of pearls using raised white paint.
    • Use of shiny green beetle wings to simulate emerald jewelry.
  • 1.3. Influences
    • Shares aesthetics with the Chaurpanchashika group of Western India.
2. Popular Themes and Paintings
  • 2.1. Rasamanjari
    • A series by Devida for Kirpal Pal in 1694-95.
  • 2.2. Other Themes
    • Bhagvata Purana, Ragamala, portraits of royalty and court life.
3. Evolution and Spread
  • 3.1. Guler-Kangra Phase (1690s-1730s)
    • Marked experimentation led to the Kangra style.
  • 3.2. Geographical Spread
    • From Basohli to other hill states: Mankot, Nurpur, Kullu, Mandi, Bilaspur, Chamba, Guler, and Kangra.
4. Depictions from the Ramayana
  • 4.1. Rama's Exile
    • Rama gave away his possessions before leaving Ayodhya.
  • 4.2. Rama with Sage Vishvamitra
    • Accompanying the sage to defeat demons in the forest.
  • 4.3. Artistic Features
    • Diverse character expressions, and fine detailing in garments, jewelry, and weapons.
    • The fragmented portrayal of animals, suggests mystery and danger.
5. Significance and Sensitivity
  • Artistry in Basohli paintings goes beyond mere depiction, capturing emotions, situations, and the environment in a nuanced manner.
Guler School
1. Guler School Overview
  • 1.1. Origin
    • Transformation from Basohli style in the first quarter of the 18th century.
    • Initiated in Guler under Raja Govardhan Chand (1744–1773).
  • 1.2. Characteristics
    • The transition from the bold vitality of Basohli to a more subdued and elegant style.
    • Introduction of the Guler–Kangra Kalam around 1730–40.
2. Key Artists
  • 2.1. Pandit Seu and Sons
    • Pandit Seu and his sons Manak and Nainsukh were pivotal in developing the Guler style.
    • Nainsukh became the court painter for Raja Balwant Singh of Jasrota.
  • 2.2. Manak
    • Painted a set of Gita Govinda in 1730, blending elements of Basohli.
  • 2.3. Nainsukh
    • Known for unique visual records of his patron Raja Balwant Singh's life.
    • Emphasized individual portraiture with pastel shades and wide expanses of white or grey.
  • 2.4. Descendants
    • Khushala, Fattu, and Gaudhu, sons of Manaku and Nainsukh, continued the artistic tradition.
3. Patrons and Development
  • 3.1. Early Guler Tradition
    • Evidence of paintings during the reign of Dalip Singh (1695–1743) and Bishan Singh.
  • 3.2. Ascendancy of Govardhan Chand
    • Witnessed a shift in painting style during his reign.
  • 3.3. Prakash Chand
    • Successor of Govardhan Chand shared a passion for art and patronized the descendants of Manaku and Nainsukh.
Kangra School
1. Kangra School Overview
  • 1.1. Patronage
    • Flourished under Raja Sansar Chand (1775–1823).
    • Sansar Chand took in artists from Guler after Prakash Chand's financial troubles.
  • 1.2. Historical Context
    • Kangra rulers belonged to the Katoch dynasty.
    • Kangra was under Mughal rule until the 17th century.
    • Raja Ghamand Chand regained territories, built Tira Sujanpur and supported artists.
2. Characteristics
  • 2.1. Style
    • Poetic, lyrical, and marked by serene beauty and delicate execution.
    • Notable for the portrayal of the female face.
  • 2.2. Themes
    • Bhagvata Purana, Gita Govinda, Nala Damayanti, Bihari Satsai, Ragamala, Baramasa.
    • Visual records of Sansar Chand's life and activities.
3. Artists and Patrons
  • 3.1. Fattu, Purkhu, Khushala
    • Significant painters of the Kangra style.
  • 3.2. Sansar Chand's Reign
    • Major production of paintings.
    • Kangra style spread to various regions.
    • Work quality declined after Gurkhas besieged Kangra.
4. Notable Paintings
  • 4.1. Bhagvata Purana Paintings
    • Highlighted naturalism and portrayed dramatic scenes.
  • 4.2. Rasa Panchdhyayi Series
    • Showed gopis recalling and enacting Krishna's feats.
  • 4.3. Abhisarika
    • The theme of a woman braving obstacles to meet her lover.
  • 4.4. Baramasa Paintings
    • Illustrated modes of love for each month of the year.
5. Classification and Other Centers
  • 5.1. Basohli, Guler, Kangra Styles
    • These are indicative centers of the painting styles.
  • 5.2. Specific Characteristics of Centers
    • Kullu: Distinctive style with wide open eyes and use of grey and terracotta red.
    • Nurpur: Mixture of Basohli vibrant colors and dainty Kangra figures.
    • Mandi: Focused on Vishnu and Shiva themes.
    • Garhwal: Influenced by the Kangra style; associated with artist Molaram.
Additional Concepts
1. Paintings & Their Descriptions
  • 1.1. "Krishna steals butter, Bhagvata Purana, 1750"
    • Location: N. C. Mehta Collection, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India.
  • 1.2. "Rama and Sita in the forest, Kangra, 1780"
    • Location: Douglas Barrett Collection, UK.
  • 1.3. "Rasamanjari, Basohli, 1720"
    • Location: British Museum, London, UK.
  • 1.4. "Rama gives away his possessions, Ayodhya Kanda, Shangri Ramayana, 1690–1700"
    • Location: Los Angeles County Museum of Art, USA.
  • 1.5. "Rama and Lakshmana following sage Vishvamitra to the forest, Bala Kanda, Shangri Ramayana 1680–1688"
    • Location: Raja Raghbir Singh Collection, Shangri, Kullu Valley, India.
  • 1.6. "Balwant Singh in prayer, Nainsukh, 1750"
    • Location: Victoria and Albert Museum, London, UK.
  • 1.7. "Krishna embracing gopis, Gita Govinda, Guler, 1760–1765"
    • Location: N. C. Mehta Collection, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India.
  • 1.8. "Kaliya Mardana, Bhagvata Purana, Kangra, 1785"
    • Location: National Museum, New Delhi, India.
  • 1.9. "Krishna playing Holi with gopis, Kangra, 1800"
    • Location: National Museum, New Delhi, India.
  • 1.10. "Re-enacting Krishna’s deeds, Bhagvata Purana, Guler–Kangra, India, 1780–85"
    • Location: Private Collection.
2. Artists & Their Influence
  • 2.1. Pandit Seu and His Sons (Manak and Nainsukh)
    • A huge influence in transitioning Pahari painting from Basohli to Kangra style.
  • 2.2. Gita Govinda by Manaku
    • Describes the love between Radha and Krishna.
    • Radha's initial shyness and Krishna's eager anticipation.
    • Poetry references describe the deep love and the eventual union of Radha and Krishna.
3. Notable Paintings Detailed Description
  • 3.1. Balwant Singh with Nainsukh
    • Depicts Balwant Singh observing a painting.
    • Nainsukh, the artist, possibly paints himself alongside his patron in a serene landscape.
  • 3.2. Krishna Nanda, Yashoda, and Krishna
    • Illustrates a scene from Bhagvata Purana.
    • Nanda and his family move to Vrindavan to escape demons.
    • Detailed expressions, natural landscapes, and acute observation of characters.
Chapter 6 - The Bengal School and Cultural Nationalism
Company Painting
1. Indian Art Before the British
  • Traditional purposes include:
    • 1.1. Statues on temple walls.
    • 1.2. Miniature paintings illustrating manuscripts.
    • 1.3. Wall decorations on village mud houses.
2. Emergence of the Company School of Painting
  • 2.1. Triggered by colonial rule in the eighteenth century.
  • 2.2. English officers commissioned local artists for documentation and artistic reasons.
    • Aim: Understand local customs, flora, fauna, and locales.
  • 2.3. Artists often migrated from places like:
    • Murshidabad, Lucknow, or Delhi.
  • 2.4. Adaptation of traditional art:
    • 2.4.1. New focus on close observation (European influence).
    • 2.4.2. Shift from relying on memory and rule books.
  • 2.5. Resulting style: Mix of traditional and European art.
    • Termed as Company School of Painting.
  • 2.6. Popularity:
    • 2.6.1. Widely appreciated in India by the British.
    • 2.6.2. Albums of such paintings were in demand in Britain.
Raja Ravi Verma
1. Indian Art Before the British
  • Traditional purposes include:
    • 1.1. Statues on temple walls.
    • 1.2. Miniature paintings illustrating manuscripts.
    • 1.3. Wall decorations on village mud houses.
2. Emergence of the Company School of Painting
  • 2.1. Triggered by colonial rule in the eighteenth century.
  • 2.2. English officers commissioned local artists for documentation and artistic reasons.
    • Aim: Understand local customs, flora, fauna, and locales.
  • 2.3. Artists often migrated from places like:
    • Murshidabad, Lucknow, or Delhi.
  • 2.4. Adaptation of traditional art:
    • 2.4.1. New focus on close observation (European influence).
    • 2.4.2. Shift from relying on memory and rule books.
  • 2.5. Resulting style: Mix of traditional and European art.
    • Termed as Company School of Painting.
  • 2.6. Popularity:
    • 2.6.1. Widely appreciated in India by the British.
    • 2.6.2. Albums of such paintings were in demand in Britain.
The Bengal School
1. Bengal School of Art
  • 1.1. Origin: Calcutta; not restricted to Bengal.
  • 1.2. Associated with nationalist (Swadeshi) movement.
  • 1.3. Leaders: Abanindranath Tagore & E. B. Havell.
  • 1.4. Objective: Create art that's Indian in style and subject matter.
  • 1.5. Inspiration: Mughal and Pahari miniatures.
2. E. B. Havell & Abanindranath Tagore
  • 2.1. Year 1896: Beginning of Indianized art education.
  • 2.2. Established in Government Art School, Calcutta.
  • 2.3. Curriculum: Indian art techniques and themes.
  • 2.4. Abanindranath's "Journey’s End": Fusion of Mughal, and Pahari styles.
  • 2.5. Journal: Indian Society of Oriental Art.
3. Shantiniketan & Early Modernism
  • 3.1. Nandalal Bose: Head of Kala Bhavana's painting department.
  • 3.2. Kala Bhavana: Part of Visva-Bharati University by Rabindranath Tagore.
  • 3.3. Nandalal's Vision: Fusion of Indian style, and folk art.
  • 3.4. "Haripura Posters" by Bose: Depicting rural India for Congress session, 1937.
  • 3.5. Kala Bhavana: Trained artists to spread nationalist vision.
4. Notable Artists & Styles
  • 4.1. Jamini Roy: Adopted folk painting style.
  • 4.2. Objective: Reach the wider public with themes of rural life.
  • 4.3. British Raj's Art Policy: Split between European and Indian tastes.
Pan-Asianism and Modernism
1. Colonial Art Divide
  • 1.1. Split: European academic style vs. Indian style.
  • 1.2. Swadeshi movement surge post 1905 Bengal Partition.
2. Ananda Coomaraswamy & Pan-Asianism
  • 2.1. Advocated Swadeshi in art.
  • 2.2. Collaboration with Japanese nationalist, Kakuzo Okakura.
  • 2.3. Goal: Unite India with Eastern nations against Western imperialism.
  • 2.4. Introduction of Japanese wash painting technique in Shantiniketan.
3. Introduction of European Modern Art in India
  • 3.1. 1922: Exhibition of works by Paul Klee, Kandinsky & other Bauhaus artists in Calcutta.
  • 3.2. Shift: From academic realism to abstract art with geometric patterns.
4. Gaganendranath Tagore & Western Art Influence
  • 4.1. Gaganendranath: Abanindranath Tagore's brother.
  • 4.2. Incorporated modern Western art styles in paintings.
  • 4.3. Adopted Cubist style; created geometric patterned interiors.
  • 4.4. Made caricatures critiquing Bengalis emulating European lifestyle.
Different Concepts of Modernism: Western and Indian
1. Conceptual Divide in Modernism
  • 1.1. Not based on race.
  • 1.2. Anglicists vs. Orientalists.
2. Benoy Sarkar's Viewpoint
  • 2.1. Sided with Anglicists.
  • 2.2. Viewed European modernism as genuine.
  • 2.3. Considered Bengal School of Art as regressive.
3. E. B. Havell's Perspective
  • 3.1. Advocated for a return to native art for authentic modern Indian art.
  • 3.2. Collaborated with Abanindranath Tagore.
4. Amrita Sher-Gil's Contribution
  • 4.1. Merged Western style (Bauhaus influence) with Indian scenes.
5. Modern Art in India: A Collision
  • 5.1. Result of conflict between colonialism and nationalism.
  • 5.2. Colonialism: Introduced new art institutions (schools, galleries, magazines).
  • 5.3. Nationalist artists: Embraced these changes but asserted an Indian or Asian identity.
6. Legacy of Modern Indian Art
  • 6.1. Oscillation between internationalism (Western influences) and indigeneity (own legacy and tradition).
Additional Concepts
1. Ghulam Ali Khan
  • 1.1. Company Painting (1800-1825)
  • 1.2. Depicts: Group of Courtesans
  • 1.3. Location: San Diego Museum of Art
2. Nandalal Bose's "Tiller of the Soil"
  • 2.1. Created in 1938 for the Haripura Congress
  • 2.2. Theme: Farmer ploughing, village life essence
  • 2.3. Style: Folk art practice, influenced by patios
  • 2.4. Reflects: Gandhi's idea of the village & Ajanta's inspirations
3. Kshitindranath Majumdar's "Rasa-Lila"
  • 3.1. Watercolour; wash technique
  • 3.2. Theme: Divine life of Sri Krishna
  • 3.3. Stylistic features: Rustic figures, delicate colors, Bhakti Marga influence
4. Abdul Rehman Chughtai's "Radhika"
  • 4.1. Technique: Wash and tempera
  • 4.2. Theme: Radhika in a state of trance
  • 4.3. Influence: Mughal manuscripts, old Persian paintings, Asian art masters
5. Gaganendranath Tagore's "City in the Night"
  • 5.1. Watercolour (1922); Cubist style
  • 5.2. Theme: Imaginary cities like Dwarka, Swarnapuri
  • 5.3. Features: Overlapping planes, artificial lighting, theatrical references
6. Raja Ravi Varma's "Rama Vanquishing the Pride of the Ocean"
  • 6.1. Theme: Puranic; Rama confronting the ocean
  • 6.2. Technique: Oil painting; Lithographic reproduction
  • 6.3. Depicts: Major moments from Ramayana
7. Jamini Roy's "Woman with Child"
  • 7.1. Gouache painting (1940)
  • 7.2. Theme: Mother and child in a folk style
  • 7.3. Influence: Folk painting, terracotta reliefs, pat paintings
8. Abanindranath Tagore's "Journey’s End"
  • 8.1. Watercolour (1913)
  • 8.2. Theme: End of a journey symbolized by a collapsed camel
  • 8.3. Technique: Wash painting; symbolic aesthetics
Chapter 7 - The Modern Indian Art
Introduction
1. Fine Arts and Colonial Perception
  • 1.1. The British viewed fine arts as European.
  • 1.2. Art schools in Lahore, Calcutta, Bombay, and Madras by late 19th century.
  • 1.3. Promoted traditional crafts and art with Victorian tastes.
2. Bengal School of Art & Kala Bhavana
  • 2.1. Reaction against colonial bias; led by Abanindranath Tagore and E.B. Havell.
  • 2.2. Kala Bhavana, India's first nationalist art school, was established in 1919.
  • 2.3. Part of Visva-Bharati University in Shantiniketan.
3. Global Influence and Art Trends
  • 3.1. WWI brought political turmoil; modern European art entered India.
  • 3.2. Gaganendranath & Rabindranath Tagore aware of Cubism and Expressionism.
  • 3.3. Art can create its own world with forms, lines, and colors.
4. Gaganendranath Tagore's Art
  • 4.1. Used Cubism for his unique style.
  • 4.2. Differed from Picasso; painted mysterious halls/rooms.
5. Rabindranath Tagore's Visual Art
  • 5.1. Started art late in life; created unique calligraphic style.
  • 5.2. Limited palette; differed from Bengal School.
6. Nandalal Bose and Students
  • 6.1. Joined Kala Bhavana in 1921-1922; trained under Abanindranath.
  • 6.2. Encouraged exploration in art; students like Benode Behari Mukherjee and Ramkinker Baij.
7. Benode Behari Mukherjee and Ramkinker Baij
  • 7.1. Focused on the environment, Santhal tribe, and literary sources.
  • 7.2. Mukherjee painted medieval saints, and Baij celebrated nature.
8. Jamini Roy's Artistic Shift
  • 8.1. Rejected academic art; influenced by Picasso and Paul Klee.
  • 8.2. Used simple colors and made them from vegetables/minerals.
  • 8.3. Unique style; differed from Raja Ravi Varma and Bengal School.
9. Amrita Sher-Gil
  • 9.1. Half Hungarian, half Indian; trained in Paris.
  • 9.2. Assimilated Indian art traditions with European modernism.
Modern Ideologies and Political Art in India
1. Contextual Background
  • 1.1. WW II's impact on India.
  • 1.2. Bengal famine outbreak due to war effects.
  • 1.3. Massive rural migration to cities.
2. Emergence of the Calcutta Group (1943)
  • 2.1. Led by Prodosh Das Gupta, a sculptor.
  • 2.2. Members: Nirode Mazumdar, Paritosh Sen, Gopal Ghose, Rathin Moitra.
  • 2.3. Philosophy: Universal art, free from past values.
  • 2.4. Critique: Bengal School was too sentimental & rooted in the past.
  • 2.5. Aimed for contemporary relevance in art.
3. Artistic Evolution
  • 3.1. Simplified visual expression, focused on core elements.
  • 3.2. Emphasized elements, materials, surfaces, forms, colors, etc.
  • 3.3. P. V. Janakiram - South Indian sculptor who creatively used metal sheets.
4. Influence of Socialism and Marxism
  • 4.1. Growing poverty attracted artists to socialism, particularly Marxism.
  • 4.2. Marxism's philosophy questioned societal class differences.
  • 4.3. Artists sought to highlight societal issues through art.
5. Printmaking: A Medium of Expression
  • 5.1. Chittoprasad and Somnath Hore used printmaking for social issues.
  • 5.2. Printmaking allows mass production & wider reach.
  • 5.3. Chittoprasad depicted the poor's plight; commissioned by the Communist Party for Bengal famine sketches.
  • 5.4. "Hungry Bengal" pamphlets showcased his work, irking the British.
The Progressive Artists’ Group of Bombay and the Multifaceted Indian Art
1. Contextual Setting
  • 1.1. Post-independence desire for artistic freedom.
2. The Progressive Artists’ Group (1946, Bombay)
  • 2.1. Formation & Aim: Challenge prevailing art school conventions.
  • 2.2. Members:
    • Francis Newton Souza (leader)
    • M. F. Husain
    • K. H. Ara
    • S. A. Bakre
    • H. A. Gade
    • S. H. Raza
3. Notable Artists & Their Works
  • 3.1. Francis Newton Souza:
    • Focused on women as subjects.
    • Painted exaggerated nudes.
    • Challenged traditional beauty standards.
  • 3.2. M. F. Husain:
    • Merged Western expressionist techniques with Indian themes.
    • Used bright Indian colors.
    • Inspired by Indian mythology, religious sources, miniatures, crafts, and folk toys.
    • The representative figure for Indian modern art internationally.
    • Paintings like "Mother Teresa" showcase his adaptability in merging modern art with Indian themes.
Abstraction - A New Trend
1. Abstraction in Indian Art
  • 1.1. Move towards abstraction, away from figurative representation.
  • 1.2. Landscape was a favorite theme, with varied color palettes.
  • 1.3. Artists drew inspiration from Indian motifs, mandala designs, and Bindu symbolism.
2. Key Artists and Their Contributions
  • 2.1. S.H. Raza:
    • Shifted towards abstraction.
    • Integrated Indian elements like mandala and Bindu.
  • 2.2. Gaitonde:
    • Pursued abstraction, balancing between abstraction and figurative.
  • 2.3. K. C. S. Paniker (South India):
    • Pioneer of abstraction.
    • Used Tamil and Sanskrit scripts, and rural crafts.
    • Argued for a long history of abstraction in India.
3. Internationalism vs Indigenous
  • 3.1. Tension grew by the late 1970s.
  • 3.2. Desire to create a distinct Indian identity in modern art.
  • 3.3. Neo-Tantric art emerged, with Indianized abstraction using traditional meditation designs.
4. Eclecticism in Modern Indian Art
  • 4.1. Artists borrowed ideas from various sources.
  • 4.2. Notable artists: Ram Kumar, Satish Gujral, A. Ramachandran, Meera Mukherjee.
5. Artist Groups and Manifestos
  • 5.1. Bombay Progressive Artist’s Group:
    • Artists began writing manifestos.
  • 5.2. Group 1890 (1963, led by J. Swaminathan):
    • Emphasized the importance of texture and surface in art.
    • Members included Gulam Mohammed Sheikh, Jyoti Bhatt, Ambadas, and Jeram Patel.
  • 5.3. Cholamandalam School's influence on the next generation.
Tracing the Modern Indian Art
1. Introduction to Modern Indian Art
  • 1.1. Modern art in India was influenced by the West, but significantly different.
  • 1.2. Modernism in India emerged during the British colonial period.
  • 1.3. Modern art in the West arose from a rejection of academic realism.
2. Role of Modernity and Colonialism
  • 2.1. Modernity and colonialism in India were interconnected.
  • 2.2. Emergence of cultural nationalism after the Indian Revolt of 1857.
  • 2.3. Concept of swadeshi in art: Not mere imitation but selective adaptation.
3. Nationalism in Art
  • 3.1. Bengal School's rise under Abanindranath Tagore in the late 19th century.
  • 3.2. Kala Bhavana in Shantiniketan as a subsequent evolution.
4. Artistic Influences
  • 4.1. Inspiration from past traditions: Ajanta frescoes, Mughal, Rajasthani, and Pahari miniatures.
  • 4.2. Distinct modern attitude in Indian art seen in works of:
    • Gagendranath Tagore
    • Rabindranath Tagore
    • Jamini Roy
    • Amrita Sher-Gil
    • Ramkinker Baij
    • Benode Behari Mukherjee
5. Overview
  • Modern art in India can't be understood merely as an imitation of the West. It was a careful selection process by Indian artists, drawing both from global influences and rich indigenous traditions.
The New Figurative Art and Modern Art from the 1980s
1. Modern Art Trends Post-1970s
  • 1.1. Shift towards recognizable figures and stories.
  • 1.2. Influenced by events like the Indo-Pakistan war and the birth of Bangladesh.
2. Artists and Their Social Concerns
  • 2.1. K. G. Subramanyan, Gulam Mohammed Sheikh, Bhupen Khakar: Emphasis on storytelling.
  • 2.2. Jogen Chowdhury, Bikash Bhattacharjee, Ganesh Pyne: Painted social issues.
  • 2.3. Inspiration from miniature paintings, folk arts, and popular forms.
3. Art Reflecting Social Inequality
  • 3.1. Artists like Jyoti Bhatt, Laxma Goud, and Anupam Sud focused on conflicts in society.
  • 3.2. Arpita Singh, Nalini Malani, Sudhir Patwardhan highlighted urban issues.
4. Baroda Art School in the 1980s
  • 4.1. Artists became politically and socially aware.
  • 4.2. Combination of fact with fiction, autobiography with fantasy.
  • 4.3. Gulam Mohammed Sheikh: Fusion of local scenes with historical styles.
  • 4.4. K. G. Subramanyan: Emphasis on public art; murals, large-scale sculptures.
5. Public View of Art
  • 5.1. Exhibition ‘Place for People’ in 1981: A move towards public art.
  • 5.2. Role of art critics like Geeta Kapur became pivotal.
6. Bhupen Khakhar & Eclectic Interest
  • 6.1. Painted everyday people and addressed queer experiences.
  • 6.2. Celebration of popular art forms, from trucks to autorickshaws.
7. Younger Painters in Mumbai
  • 7.1. Inspired by popular images: calendars, ads, film hoardings.
  • 7.2. Experimental techniques: painting in the style of photographs.
New Media Art: from the 1990s
1. Impact of 1990s Liberalisation
  • 1.1. Economic growth and IT advancements in cities.
  • 1.2. Concurrent social and political unrest.
2. Shift in Artistic Mediums
  • 2.1. Traditional easel painting and sculpture began losing prominence.
  • 2.2. Rise in popularity of video and photography due to their mass reach.
3. Installation Art
  • 3.1. Merges painting, sculpture, photography, video, and television.
  • 3.2. Offers an immersive multisensory experience.
  • 3.3. Pioneers: Nalini Malani (Mumbai) and Vivan Sundaram (Delhi).
4. Evolution of Photography in Art
  • 4.1. New technique: ‘photorealism’.
  • 4.2. Used by artists like Atul Dodiya and T. V. Santosh.
  • 4.3. Addressed themes like communal violence and urban growth.
5. Documentary Aspect of Photography
  • 5.1. Artists: Sheba Chachi, Ravi Agarwal, Atul Bhalla.
  • 5.2. Focused on marginalized individuals and ecological concerns.
6. The Nature of Contemporary Art
  • 6.1. Continuously evolving and reliant on technology.
  • 6.2. Significant role of art galleries, both private and public.
  • 6.3. Digital art, catalogs, and social media influence art narratives.
7. Call to Action for Visual Arts Students
  • 7.1. Explore and understand local artists and their works.
  • 7.2. Visit art galleries and document artistic contributions.
Additional Concepts
1. Overview
  • 1.1. Modern Indian art predominantly drew inspiration from rural India, with urban life rarely depicted.
  • 1.2. The belief: real India resides in villages.
2. Notable Artworks & Artists
  • 2.1. Gaganendranath Tagore
    • Art: Cubist City (1925)
    • Location: Victoria Memorial Hall, Kolkata
  • 2.2. Rabindranath Tagore
    • Art: Doodle (1920)
    • Location: Visva-Bharati University, Shantiniketan
  • 2.3. Jamini Roy
    • Art: Black Horse (1940)
    • Location: NGMA, New Delhi
  • 2.4. Chittoprasad
    • Art: Hungry Bengal (1943)
    • Location: Delhi Art Gallery, New Delhi
3. Artists' Reflections on Realities & Traditions
  • 3.1. M. F. Husain
    • Art: Mother Teresa (1980s)
    • Interpretation: Fusion of European art and modernism.
  • 3.2. Amrita Sher-Gil
    • Art: Haldi Grinder (1940)
    • Interpretation: Melding European modern art with Indian traditions.
  • 3.3. K. G. Subramanyan
    • Art: Fairy Tales from Purvapalli (1986)
    • Interpretation: Imaginary landscapes blending nature with human elements.
4. Techniques & Innovations
  • 4.1. Krishna Reddy
    • Art: Whirlpool (1963)
    • Technique: Viscosity printing.
  • 4.2. Somnath Hore
    • Art: Children (1958)
    • Theme: Suffering caused by the Bengal Famine of 1943.
  • 4.3. Jyoti Bhatt
    • Art: Devi (1970)
    • Interpretation: Mix of folk traditions and modernism.
5. Sculptures and Monumental Artworks
  • 5.1. Debi Prasad Roy Chowdhury
    • Art: Triumph of Labour (1959)
    • Location: Marina Beach, Chennai
  • 5.2. Ramkinker Baij
    • Art: Santhal Family (1937)
    • Location: Kala Bhavana, Shantiniketan
  • 5.3. Amarnath Sahgal
    • Art: Cries Un-heard (1958)
    • Theme: Plight of vulnerable families.
  • 5.4. P. V. Janakiram
    • Art: Ganesha (1970)
    • Interpretation: Blend of traditional imagery and modernism.
  • 5.5. Mrinalini Mukherjee
    • Art: Vanshri (1994)
    • Medium: Hemp-fibre.
    • Interpretation: Monumental form representing natural divinity.
Chapter 8 - The Living Art Traditions of India
Introduction
  • 1.1. India's rich tradition of art forms extends beyond urban centers, reaching forests, deserts, mountains, and villages.
  • 1.2. While historical art has been linked to specific periods or dynasties, the common people have also been creative.
2. Art of Common People
  • 2.1. Common folks have always been deeply artistic, with or without formal education.
  • 2.2. Questions arise about their contributions before coming to cities or their current creations in remote areas.
3. Indigenous Knowledge and Artistic Legacy
  • 3.1. India boasts a vast reservoir of indigenous knowledge passed down through generations.
  • 3.2. Historically, certain art forms were termed minor arts, folk art, tribal art, crafts, etc.
  • 3.3. Prehistoric cave paintings, pottery, terracotta, and bronze works from the Indus period are a testament to the artistic prowess of ancient Indians.
4. Artistic Communities and Their Work
  • 4.1. Throughout history, references to artistic communities have been abundant.
  • 4.2. These communities produced pots, dresses, jewelry, sculptures, and wall and floor decorations.
  • 4.3. Their creations were deeply symbolic, with specific motifs, materials, and methods of making.
  • 4.4. The line between folk art and crafts is blurred, as both involve creativity, instinct, necessity, and aesthetics.
5. Modern Perspective & Revival
  • 5.1. 19th and 20th centuries saw traditional art forms inspire modern artists in India and the West.
  • 5.2. Post-Independence India witnessed a revival of the handicraft industry, organizing it for commercial production.
  • 5.3. With the formation of States and Union Territories, unique art forms and products were showcased in State emporia.
6. Importance of Indian Art & Craft Traditions
  • 6.1. Represents tangible heritage with a history spanning over five millennia.
  • 6.2. While many art and craft forms are known, they often carry religious, ritualistic, utilitarian, and decorative significance.
  • 6.3. These traditions are intertwined with daily practices, both on a household and commercial scale.
Painting Traditions
1. Introduction to Painting Traditions
  • 1.1. India boasts a vast array of regional painting traditions, from Madhubani in Bihar to Pata Chitra in Bengal.
2. Mithila (Madhubani) Painting
  • 2.1. Originates from Mithila in Bihar, also known as Madhubani after the district.
  • 2.2. Traditionally painted by women on mud house walls for weddings and other ceremonies.
  • 2.3. Themes: Ramayana, Bhagvata Purana, daily life, nature, and deities.
  • 2.4. Made with bamboo twigs and natural colors from plants and minerals.
3. Warli Painting
  • 3.1. Practiced by the Warli community in Northern Maharashtra.
  • 3.2. Central theme: The mother goddess, Palaghat, symbolizes fertility.
  • 3.3. Depicts daily life, rituals, nature, and urban influences.
  • 3.4. Painted with rice flour on earth-colored walls.
4. Gond Painting
  • 4.1. From the Gonds of Madhya Pradesh, traditionally nature worshippers.
  • 4.2. Themes: Nature, animals, and episodes from Hindu epics.
  • 4.3. Vivid geometric and colorful depictions.
5. Pithoro Painting
  • 5.1. Created by Rathva Bhils in Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh.
  • 5.2. Large wall paintings representing deities as horse riders, illustrate the cosmography of the Rathvas.
6. Pata Painting
  • 6.1. Practiced in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Bengal, and Odisha. Known variably as Pata, Pachedi, and Phad.
  • 6.2. Bengal Pata: Storytelling art, with patuas (performers) displaying paintings and singing narratives.
  • 6.3. Puri Pata: From the temple city of Puri in Odisha, depicting the deities and rituals associated with the Jagannath temple.
  • 6.4. Techniques: Painting on cloth or palm leaf, using organic colors.
7. Phads of Rajasthan
  • 7.1. Long horizontal cloth scrolls, celebrating pastoral deities.
  • 7.2. Themes: Tales of cattle heroes (bhomias) protecting the community's cattle.
  • 7.3. Displayed by bhopas (bards) in night-long storytelling performances.
  • 7.4. Painted by 'Joshis', traditionally court artists specializing in miniature paintings.
Sculptural Traditions
1. Sculptural Traditions Overview
  • 1.1. Encompasses diverse mediums like terracotta, metal, and stone.
  • 1.2. Found throughout India with unique regional variations.
2. Dhokra Casting
  • 2.1. Prominent metal craft in Bastar (Chhattisgarh), parts of Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Midnapore (West Bengal).
  • 2.2. Uses the lost wax or cire perdue technique for bronze casting.
  • 2.3. Craftsmen, known as ghadwa, traditionally created utensils, jewelry, and votive offerings.
  • 2.4. Process:
    • 2.4.1. Core figure created from black soil mixed with rice husk.
    • 2.4.2. Covered with layers of clay and cow dung.
    • 2.4.3. Resin from saal tree used to create decorative details.
    • 2.4.4. Furnace firing using saal wood or coal.
    • 2.4.5. Metal melted and poured into molds, replacing the evaporated resin.
3. Terracotta Sculptures
  • 3.1. Widely prevalent, made from local clay (often from riverbanks or ponds).
  • 3.2. Usually made by potters and baked for durability.
  • 3.3. Forms include images of deities, animals, birds, and insects.
  • 3.4. Found across India, with regional specialties in Manipur, Assam, Kuchchha, Northern Hills, Tamil Nadu, Gangetic Plains, and Central India.
Glossary
1. Artistic Styles & Movements
  • 1.1. Academic realism
    • Originated in European academies.
    • Introduced in India during colonialism with art academies in Calcutta, Madras, and Lahore.
  • 1.2. Abstraction & Abstract Art
    • Reducing to essential characteristics.
    • Exaggerates or simplifies real-world forms.
    • Linked with modernism.
  • 1.3. Expressionism
    • Art conveys intense emotion.
    • Distorts reality for emotional impact.
  • 1.4. Cubism
    • Associated with Picasso and Braque.
    • Inspired by African sculpture and Paul Cézanne.
    • Depicts objects from multiple viewpoints.
  • 1.5. Modernism
    • The universal approach; challenges traditional norms.
    • Influenced global regions since the late 19th century.
  • 1.6. Naturalism
    • Representation based on detailed accuracy.
  • 1.7. Realism
    • Artistic movement from mid-19th century France.
  • 1.8. Renaissance Art
    • Emerged in Italy around 1400.
    • Revived classical antiquity features.
2. Artistic Professions & Roles
  • 1.1. Aesthete
    • Appreciates art and beauty.
  • 1.2. Art Critic
    • Evaluates and critiques art. Reviews published in various mediums.
  • 1.3. Curators
    • Keepers of cultural heritage institutions.
    • In contemporary art, strategize art displays.
  • 1.4. Digital Artist
    • Uses digital technology in art production.
3. Artistic Techniques & Practices
  • 1.1. Chiaroscuro
    • Treatment of light and shade in artworks.
  • 1.2. Dhokra Casting
    • Bronze casting via the lost wax method.
    • Popular in Bastar, Chhattisgarh, and other regions.
  • 1.3. Etching
    • Raised portions remain blank; crevices hold ink.
    • Engraving on metal plates.
  • 1.4. Foreshortening
    • Portraying objects as closer than actual.
  • 1.5. Installation Art
    • Combines various materials to transform the perception of space.
  • 1.6. Linocut
    • Relief printing using linoleum.
  • 1.7. Lithography
    • A technique using porous surfaces, often limestone.
  • 1.8. Mural
    • Artwork directly on large surfaces like walls.
  • 1.9. Sfumato
    • Gradual shading produces hazy forms.
  • 1.10. Video Art
    • Uses kinetic images; emerged in the 1960s and 1970s.
4. Artistic Terminologies
  • 1.1. Avant-Garde
    • Experimental or innovative art.
  • 1.2. Bibliophile
    • A person who loves and collects books.
  • 1.3. Colophon Page
    • Statement about a book's publication details.
  • 1.4. Community Art
    • Art centered around community engagement.
  • 1.5. Genre
    • Category or style of art, music, or literature.
  • 1.6. Gouache
    • Opaque watercolor painting.
  • 1.7. Illusionism
    • Artistic representation resembling real objects.
  • 1.8. Kalam
    • Style of painting.
  • 1.9. Physiognomy
    • A person's facial features or general appearance.
Copyright 2022 UPSC Vision