✅Medieval History - Class 7: Our Past

Chapter 1 - Introduction Tracing Changes Through a Thousand Years

Comparative Analysis of Maps

Comparative Table: Al-Idrisi's Map vs. French Cartographer's Map

Feature/Aspect	Map 1: Al-Idrisi's Map (1154 CE)	Map 2: French Cartographer's Map (1720s)
Creator	Arab geographer Al-Idrisi	A French cartographer
Year of Creation	1154 CE	1720s
Purpose/Usage	General Geography	Navigation for European sailors and merchants
Geographical Detail	Detail of the Indian subcontinent	Detailed coastal areas
Orientation	South India is where north India is expected	Familiar orientation to contemporary viewers
Language	Arabic	Likely French or another European language
Notable Mention	Kanauj in Uttar Pradesh is spelled as Qanauj	Used by European sailors and merchants; reflects evolved cartography
Time Gap from Previous Map	N/A	Nearly 600 years
Additional Information	Part of a larger world map	Surprisingly detailed coastal areas

Historical Context and Cartography

Historians must be sensitive to the varying historical contexts when interpreting documents, maps, and texts.

The science of cartography and available information about regions can differ across periods.

Maps

Map Drawn by Al-Idrisi in the 12th century showing the Indian subcontinent from land to sea.

Map drawn in 18th century Atlas Nouveau of Guillaume de l’Isle

Evolution of Language and Terminologies

Historical Records and Language Evolution

Existence of records in various languages, which have evolved over time.

Medieval Persian and modern Persian differ in grammar, vocabulary, and word meanings.

Example: The Term “Hindustan”

Current Understanding: India, the modern nation-state.

13th Century Usage (Minhaj-i-Siraj):

Referred to areas of Punjab, Haryana, and lands between the Ganga and Yamuna.
Used politically for lands under the dominions of the Delhi Sultan.
The term’s geographical reference shifted with the extent of the Sultanate.
Excluded south India.

Early 16th Century Usage (Babur):

Described the geography, fauna, and culture of the subcontinent inhabitants.
Not strictly political or national as in the modern sense.

14th Century Usage (Amir Khusrau):

Used to describe a geographical and cultural entity, similar to Babur’s usage.

Historical Sensitivity to Terminologies - Changing Meaning of Foreigner

Historians must be cautious with terms as their meanings might have evolved.

Example: The term “foreigner” has different connotations in different periods.

Medieval Period: A stranger appearing in a village, not part of that society or culture (could be termed "pardesi" in Hindi or "ajnabi" in Persian).
Present Day: Someone who is not an Indian.

Historians and Their Sources (700-1750)

Sources Used by Historians: 1.1. Continuity from previous periods: coins, inscriptions, architecture, textual records. 1.2. Increase in textual records: displacement of other information types. 1.3. Advent of paper: cheaper, more accessible, used for various writings.

Manuscripts: 2.1. Collections by the affluent, rulers, monasteries, and temples. 2.2. Placement in libraries and archives. 2.3. Challenges: no printing press, variations in hand-copied manuscripts.

Issues with Manuscripts: 3.1. Absence of original manuscripts: reliance on later copies. 3.2. Variations due to scribes’ errors or intentional changes. 3.3. Need for cross-verification across different manuscript versions.

Author Revisions: 4.1. Authors sometimes revise their texts. 4.2. Example: Ziyauddin Barani’s chronicle - differences between versions of 1356 and 1358. 4.3. Discovery delays: e.g., Barani's first version only found in the 1960s.

New Social and Political Groups (700-1750)

Challenges in Historical Study: 1.1. Period marked by diverse developments. 1.2. Introduction of new technologies (e.g., Persian wheel, spinning wheel, firearms). 1.3. Arrival of new foods and beverages (e.g., potatoes, corn, chilies, tea, coffee).

Mobility and Opportunity: 2.1. Era of significant mobility; people traveled for opportunities. 2.2. The subcontinent is perceived as a land of wealth and opportunity.

Emergence of New Groups: 3.1. Rajputs: 3.1.1. Derived from “Rajaputra” (son of a ruler). 3.1.2. Term used for warriors claiming Kshatriya status (8th-14th centuries). 3.1.3. Known for valor and loyalty. 3.2. Other Significant Groups: 3.2.1. Marathas, Sikhs, Jats, Ahoms, Kayasthas. 3.2.2. Rose to political prominence during this period.

Societal and Environmental Changes: 4.1. Expansion of agriculture through forest clearing. 4.2. Migration and transformation of forest-dwellers into peasants. 4.3. Integration of peasants into complex societal structures. 4.4. Emergence of economic and social disparities among peasants.

Jatis (Sub-Castes): 5.1. Formation based on occupation and background. 5.2. Flexible ranking system, influenced by power and resources. 5.3. Localized status variation.

Social Regulations and Governance: 6.1. Jatis established its own regulatory rules. 6.2. Enforcement by assemblies (jati panchayats). 6.3. Compliance with broader village rules is required. 6.4. Chieftain governance over several villages.

Region and Empire

Large States and Empires: 1.1. Existence of vast empires like the Cholas, Tughluqs, and Mughals. 1.2. Empires spanned from Bengal to Afghanistan, including all of south India. 1.3. Influence over diverse cultural regions (e.g., Gauda, Andhra, Kerala).

Regional Characteristics and Conflicts: 2.1. Distinct geographical, linguistic, and cultural traits by 700. 2.2. Associations with specific ruling dynasties. 2.3. Frequent conflicts, and occasional formation of pan-regional empires.

Effects of Empire Decline: 3.1. The post-Mughal era saw the resurgence of regional states. 3.2. Legacies of past empires influenced governance, economy, culture, and language. 3.3. Regions maintained distinctiveness while experiencing pan-regional influences.

Religious Developments: 4.1. Significant changes in religious traditions and practices. 4.2. Evolution in Hinduism: new deities, temple construction, increased Brahmanical influence. 4.3. Emergence of Bhakti: personal deity worship without priestly mediation.

Introduction of New Religions: 5.1. Arrival of Islam in the 7th century via merchants and migrants. 5.2. The Quran's teachings, belief in one God (Allah). 5.3. Patronage by many rulers, significant influence of the ulama.

Diversity within Islam: 6.1. Shia and Sunni sects: differing beliefs regarding legitimate leadership. 6.2. Variations in law schools, theology, and mystic traditions (e.g., Hanafi, Shafi’i).

Map

Thinking about Time and Historical Periods

Perception of Time in History: 1.1. Not just a chronological passage but also encompasses changes in society, economy, and ideas. 1.2. Division of history into periods based on shared characteristics.

Nineteenth-Century Periodisation: 2.1. British historians' division: “Hindu”, “Muslim”, and “British” periods. 2.2. Criticism: Overemphasis on rulers' religions, neglect of other developments, and ignorance of regional diversity.

Contemporary Historical Periodisation: 3.1. Preference for economic and social factors over religious or dynastic ones. 3.2. The term “medieval” encompasses various societies and developments.

Features of the "Medieval" Period: 4.1. Expansion of peasant societies. 4.2. Emergence of regional and imperial state formations. 4.3. Development of major religions: Hinduism and Islam. 4.4. Arrival of European trading companies.

Problems with "Medieval" Label: 5.1. Oversimplification of diverse changes over centuries. 5.2. Unfair contrast with “modernity”, implying stagnation.

Transformations in the Subcontinent: 6.1. Frequent societal transformations. 6.2. Economic prosperity attracting European interest.

Analyzing Historical Changes: 7.1. Importance of recognizing signs of change and historical processes. 7.2. Encouragement to compare past societies with current ones to discern changes and continuities.

Additional Concepts

Map Making, Language, and Social Changes

Map Making: 1.1. Historical maps like those by al-Idrisi offer insights into past perceptions of geography.

1.2. Discrepancies in detail between coastal and inland areas due to varying exploration and knowledge levels.

Value of Paper: 2.1. Paper's scarcity in the 13th century led to reuse by washing off existing writing. 2.2. By the 14th century, paper became more accessible, and used even for wrapping goods.

Manuscript Culture: 3.1. Scribes meticulously copied manuscripts, sometimes leading to variations. 3.2. Miniature paintings enhanced manuscripts, becoming collectibles themselves.

Language Diversity: 4.1. Amir Khusrau's observation of different languages in various regions. 4.2. Sanskrit, known only to Brahmanas, was not tied to a specific region.

Technological and Cultural Changes: 5.1. Introduction of new technologies, such as the Persian wheel. 5.2. Significant changes depending on regional economic and social structures.

Empires and Regions: 6.1. The Delhi Sultanate's extent during Muhammad Tughluq’s reign. 6.2. The impact of pan-regional empires on local regions and languages.

Keywords:

Manuscript: A handwritten document or book, often used before the invention of the printing press.

Jati: A term from Indian society referring to a group that defines one's occupation and social status, often used synonymously with caste.

Region: A broad geographical area distinguished by certain characteristics, often having cultural, historical, or administrative significance.

Periodization: The process or study of categorizing the past into discrete, quantified blocks of time in order to facilitate the study and analysis of history.

Chapter 2 - Kings and Kingdoms

Emergence of New Dynasties and Kingdom Administration

Emergence of New Dynasties: 1.1. Post-seventh century, significant landlords and warrior chiefs became prevalent across the subcontinent. 1.2. These chiefs, known as samantas, were subordinates to kings, providing gifts, court attendance, and military support. 1.3. Over time, samantas accrued power, with some, like the Rashtrakutas, declaring independence from overlords. 1.4. Rituals like hiranya-garbha were performed for the "rebirth" of a non-Kshatriya sacrificer as a Kshatriya. 1.5. Some individuals, like the Kadamba Mayurasharman and Gurjara-Pratihara Harichandra, established kingdoms through military prowess.

Administration in the Kingdoms: 2.1. New kings often adopted grandiose titles (e.g., maharaja-adhiraja, tribhuvana-chakravartin) but shared power with samantas and local associations. 2.2. Resources were extracted from producers (peasants, cattle-keepers, artisans) as rent or tribute, and from traders as taxes. 2.3. Collected resources funded the king’s establishment, temple and fort constructions, and wars for further wealth and land acquisition. 2.4. Administrative and military positions, often hereditary, were usually held by the king's relatives or influential families.

Map

Prashastis, Land Grants, and Warfare for Wealth

Prashastis and Land Grants: 1.1. Prashastis, often not literal truths, depicted rulers as heroic figures. 1.2. Authored by learned Brahmanas involved in administration. 1.3. Rulers frequently rewarded Brahmanas with land grants, documented on copper plates. 1.4. Kalhana, an exception in the 12th century, critically documented the history of Kashmiri kings using various sources.

Warfare for Wealth: 2.1. Dynasties, while region-based, aimed to control additional territories. 2.2. The city of Kanauj was highly coveted, leading to the "tripartite struggle" among the Gurjara-Pratihara, Rashtrakuta, and Pala dynasties. 2.3. Temples, symbols of a ruler's power and wealth, were common targets in conflicts. 2.3.1. Mahmud of Ghazni conducted 17 raids into the subcontinent, targeting wealthy temples. 2.4. Expansionist ambitions often led to warfare, as with the Chahamanas (Chauhans). 2.4.1. Notable event: Prithviraja III's victory over Sultan Muhammad Ghori in 1191 and subsequent defeat in 1192.

The Cholas

Rise to Power: 1.1. Vijayalaya, from the Chola family, captured the Kaveri delta from the Muttaraiyar, establishing Thanjavur. 1.2. Successors expanded the kingdom, with Rajaraja I significantly reorganizing the empire. 1.3. Rajendra I continued expansion, including invasions of the Ganga valley, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia.

Temples and Culture: 2.1. Temples, like those in Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram, were cultural hubs. 2.2. Settlements and economic activities flourished around temples. 2.3. Chola bronze sculpture, especially of deities, gained renown.

Agricultural Developments: 3.1. Agriculture advancements under the Cholas were significant. 3.2. The Kaveri delta's fertile lands and irrigation systems supported extensive rice cultivation. 3.3. Irrigation methods included well-digging and constructing tanks for rainwater storage.

Empire Administration: 4.1. Prosperous peasant settlements, known as "ur," formed larger units called "nadu." 4.2. Village councils and nadus undertook administrative tasks, including justice and tax collection. 4.3. Rich peasants, with titles from Chola kings, held significant administrative roles. 4.4. Brahmanas received land grants, leading to numerous Brahmana settlements. 4.5. Local administrative bodies, like sabhas and trader associations (nagarams), were active in governance. 4.6. Detailed inscriptions recorded decisions, and committee members were selected by lottery.

Map

Additional Concepts

Taxes and Administration: 1.1. Chola inscriptions mention over 400 different taxes, often in the form of forced labor or products. 1.2. Administration under the Cholas was complex, with specific duties and taxes for various aspects of daily life.

Prashastis and Claims of Rulers: 2.1. Prashastis were laudatory inscriptions highlighting rulers' achievements, often exaggerating their conquests and power. 2.2. Rulers like Nagabhata used prashastis to assert dominance over various regions and peoples.

Land Grants and Control: 3.1. Land grants included various resources and the authority to collect taxes. 3.2. Recipients could undertake significant development, indicating the transfer of substantial economic power.

Irrigation and Agriculture: 4.1. Various irrigation sources are mentioned: canals, ditches, rivers, tanks, etc. 4.2. Control over the Ganga Valley and Kanauj was likely due to their agricultural and economic importance.

Chola Architecture and Sculpture: 5.1. Chola temples, like the one at Gangaikondacholapuram, were significant for their architectural complexity and detailed sculptures. 5.2. Bronze sculptures from this period are celebrated for their intricate detailing and craftsmanship.

Types of Land and Local Administration: 6.1. Chola inscriptions mention several categories of land, each with specific purposes or social associations. 6.2. Local assemblies, or sabhas, had eligibility criteria emphasizing property ownership, age, knowledge, and administrative competence.

Social Life and Exclusions: 7.1. Literary sources like the Periyapuranam provide insight into the lives of ordinary people, often excluded from inscriptions. 7.2. Social distinctions were stark, with activities of "lower" groups rarely mentioned in official or religious records.

Keywords:

Samanta: A term used in early medieval Indian texts to denote the subordinate rulers. Originally, they were tribal chiefs who gradually became subordinates to the major kings and performed various administrative functions.

Temple: In this context, it refers to the religious, economic, and social hubs in Chola society, often endowed with land and serving as centers of craft production.

Nadu: A term for a region or a sub-region, signifying a territorial division in the Chola empire, often encompassing several villages.

Sabha: Refers to an assembly or council in ancient and medieval India, often of elders and influential people of a community or region, responsible for various administrative and judicial functions.

Chapter 3 - Delhi: 12th to 15th Century

How Delhi Emerged as a Capital

Delhi's Emergence as a Capital: 1.1. Delhi rose to prominence in the 12th century, first as the capital of the Tomara Rajputs and then the Chauhans. 1.2. It evolved into a significant commercial center, home to affluent Jaina merchants and a hub for minting coins known as Dhaliwal.

The Delhi Sultanate: 2.1. The Delhi Sultanate, established in the early 13th century, marked Delhi's transformation into a dominant capital. 2.2. It comprised five dynasties: Mamluk, Khilji, Tughlaq, Sayyid, and Lodi. 2.3. Sultans established several cities in present-day Delhi, including Dehli-i Kuhna, Siri, and Jahanpanah.

Tawarikh: Historical Writing during the Sultanate: 3.1. Tawarikh were histories written in Persian, the administrative language of the Delhi Sultans. 3.2. Authors were typically urban-dwelling secretaries, administrators, poets, and courtiers. 3.3. Tawarikh served dual purposes: recounting events and offering governance advice. 3.4. Writers expected rewards from Sultans and often emphasized preserving a social order based on birthright and gender.

Sultan Raziyya: 4.1. Ascended to the throne in 1236 as the daughter of Sultan Iltutmish, recognized for her qualifications over her brothers. 4.2. Her rule challenged traditional gender roles, causing discomfort among chroniclers and nobles. 4.3. Nobles opposed her independent rule, leading to her removal in 1240.

Rulers of Delhi

Map

Administrations under Khaljis and Tughluqs

1.1. Bandagan System: - Early Delhi Sultans, particularly Iltutmish, used special slaves, known as "bandagan," for administrative roles due to their loyalty. - The Khaljis and Tughluqs continued this practice, often elevating individuals of humble origins to high positions. - This practice caused political instability, as loyalty was to the individual ruler and not necessarily to the ruler's heirs. - The promotion of those of lower social standing was criticized by the elites and Persian tawarikh authors.

1.2. Iqta System: - Military commanders were appointed as governors, known as iqtadars or muqtis, of various territories (iqtas). - Their duties included military campaigns, maintaining law and order, and collecting state-prescribed taxes as their revenue. - To ensure loyalty and effectiveness, their tenure was often non-inheritable and short-term, especially under Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq.

1.3. Land Revenue and Taxes: - The state took control of land revenue assessment and collection, canceling local chieftains' rights to levy taxes. - Taxes included kharaj (on cultivation), cattle, and houses, with kharaj being about 50% of the peasant's produce.

1.4. Control Challenges: - Large regions, particularly distant provinces like Bengal and forested areas, remained outside the Delhi Sultanate's control. - Local chieftains often established rule in these areas, with Sultanate control being temporary under rulers like Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq.

1.5. Mongol Threat: - The Delhi Sultanate faced significant threats from Mongol invasions, particularly during the reigns of Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq. - Maintaining a large standing army to counter these threats posed substantial administrative challenges.

The Sultanate in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries

1.1. Post-Tughluq Period: - After the Tughluqs, the Sayyid and Lodi dynasties ruled from Delhi and Agra until 1526. - Regions like Jaunpur, Bengal, Malwa, Gujarat, Rajasthan, and south India saw the rise of independent rulers establishing prosperous states and capitals.

1.2. Emergence of New Ruling Groups: - The period marked the emergence of new ruling groups such as the Afghans and the Rajputs. - Some states, though small, were powerful and well-administered.

1.3. Rise of Sher Shah Sur: - Sher Shah Sur, starting as a manager of a small territory in Bihar, defeated Mughal emperor Humayun and captured Delhi, establishing his own dynasty (the Sur dynasty, 1540–1555). - His rule, though short-lived, was marked by efficient administration, refining practices from Alauddin Khalji's time.

1.4. Legacy: - Sher Shah’s administrative system served as a model for Emperor Akbar, aiding the consolidation of the Mughal Empire.

Additional Concepts

Concept of the Circle of Justice:

The circle of justice highlights the interdependence between the king, soldiers, salaries, revenue, and peasants. Prosperity and happiness among peasants, essential for revenue, depend on the king's just and honest governance.

Views on Gender and Rulership:

Minhaj-i Siraj was uncomfortable with Raziyya's rule, believing in an ideal social order where women were subordinate. Raziyya, unlike some female rulers, openly acknowledged her gender.

The preference for slaves over sons in governance was due to the lifetime loyalty and experience slaves could offer.

Administration under the Sultans:

Sultans favored special slaves, "bandagan," for key positions due to their loyalty. The Khaljis and Tughluqs continued this, also promoting individuals of humble origin, causing political instability.

Lands called "iqta" were governed by "muqtis" who maintained order and were paid through revenue collection. Strict control over muqtis was necessary for effective governance.

Taxes included kharaj (agricultural tax), cattle tax, and house tax. Despite the Sultanate's efforts, some regions remained outside their control, with local chieftains often resisting their rule.

Mongol Invasions:

The Delhi Sultanate faced frequent Mongol attacks, necessitating a large standing army and presenting significant administrative challenges.

Criticism of Sultan Muhammad Tughluq:

His appointment of individuals from diverse backgrounds (like wine distiller, barber, cook, and gardeners) to high posts was criticized as a sign of poor judgment.

Defense Strategies of Chieftains:

Chieftains fortified themselves in inaccessible terrains, using natural resources like bamboo groves as defenses, requiring powerful armies with special equipment for any successful invasion.

Definitions of Keywords:

Iqta: A territorial administrative unit in the Islamic governance system, similar to a fiefdom, governed by a muqti.

Tarikh: In Persian, it refers to historical narratives, especially those written by learned individuals like secretaries, administrators, and poets during the Delhi Sultanate.

Garrison: A body of troops stationed in a particular location, often a fort or fortified town, to defend it.

Mongols: A Central Asian ethnic group, known for creating the largest contiguous empire in history under Genghis Khan.

Gender: The range of characteristics pertaining to, and differentiating between, femininity and masculinity, often based on social and cultural constructs.

Kharaj: A tax on agricultural land levied in Islamic states.

Chapter 4 - The Mughals: 16th to 17th Century

Chapter 5 - Tribes, Nomads and Settled Communities

Introduction

Societal Structures and Changes: 1.1. Varna System:

Society was often divided based on varna rules, leading to increased disparities between high and low, rich and poor classes.

1.2. Impact of Rulers:

Under the Delhi Sultans and Mughals, social hierarchies and class distinctions intensified.

Tribal Societies: 2.1. Characteristics:

Tribes often didn't adhere to Brahmanical social norms or rituals, nor were they fragmented into multiple unequal classes.

Kinship bonds were a unifying factor within tribes. 2.2. Livelihoods:

Their economic activities varied, including agriculture, hunting-gathering, herding, or a combination of these.

Some tribes were nomadic, moving from one location to another. 2.3. Land and Pastures:

Land and pastures were commonly controlled and divided among households based on tribal rules. 2.4. Habitats and Conflicts:

Tribes typically inhabited forests, hills, deserts, and other remote locales.

They occasionally had conflicts with caste-based societies but maintained their independence and cultural identities.

Interdependence of Societal Structures: 3.1. Caste-based and Tribal Societies:

Despite conflicts, these societies were interdependent, fulfilling each other's various needs.

This relationship led to mutual changes over time.

Who were Tribal People?

Tribal Histories and Traditions: 1.1. Historical Records:

Contemporary historians seldom documented tribal societies.

Tribes maintained rich customs and oral traditions instead of written records. 1.2. Modern Historiography:

Present-day historians utilize these oral traditions for constructing tribal histories.

Geographical Spread and Influence of Tribes: 2.1. Varied Presence:

Tribes were present throughout the subcontinent, with their area and influence varying over time. 2.2. Notable Tribes and Regions:

Punjab: The Khokhar tribe (influential in the 13th-14th centuries), succeeded by the Gakkhars.

Multan and Sind: The Langahs and Arghuns, later subdued by the Mughals.

North-West: The Balochis, comprising various clans.

Western Himalaya: The Gaddis, a shepherd tribe.

North-East: Dominated by tribes like the Nagas and Ahoms.

Bihar and Jharkhand: Chero chiefdoms, Mundas, and Santals also extend into Orissa and Bengal.

Maharashtra and Karnataka: Home to Kolis, Berads, and others.

Gujarat: Inhabited by Kolis.

South India: Populated by tribes like Koragas, Vetars, Maravars, etc.

Western and Central India: The Bhils, transitioning from hunter-gatherers to agriculturists and zamindars.

Central India: The Gonds, spread across several modern states.

Tribal Interactions with the Mughal Empire: 3.1. Mughal Campaigns:

Tribes like the Cheros faced attacks from Mughal forces, leading to their subjugation. 3.2. Transition in Livelihoods:

By the late 16th century, some tribes (e.g., the Bhils) transitioned to settled agriculture, with some becoming zamindars.

Map

How Nomads and Mobile People Lived

Lifestyle of Nomadic Pastoralists: 1.1. Movement and Livelihood:

Traversed long distances with their animals.

Depended on milk and pastoral products for sustenance. 1.2. Economic Exchange:

Traded wool, ghee, etc., with settled agriculturists for essentials like grain and cloth.

Goods were transported on animals during their movements.

Banjaras - The Trader-Nomads: 2.1. Role and Function:

Prominent trader-nomads is known for their caravans or 'tandas'. 2.2. Historical Significance:

Employed by Sultan Alauddin Khalji to transport grain to city markets.

Under Jahangir, they transported grain for the Mughal army, sometimes involving up to 100,000 bullocks during military campaigns.

Economic Activities of Various Tribes and Castes: 3.1. Animal Rearing and Trade:

Some pastoral tribes specialized in rearing and selling animals like cattle and horses. 3.2. Petty Pedlars:

Different castes traveled between villages selling various handmade wares. 3.3. Mendicants and Merchants:

Some mendicants functioned as wandering merchants. 3.4. Entertainers:

Certain castes of entertainers performed across towns and villages for sustenance.

Changing Society: New Castes and Hierarchies

1. Social Changes and Emergence of New Castes: 1.1. Economic Growth and Social Evolution: - Economic expansion necessitated people with specialized skills, leading to the formation of new jatis within the varnas. 1.2. Integration of Tribes into Caste Society: - Tribes and social groups were assimilated into caste-based society, becoming jatis. - Specialized artisans (e.g., smiths, carpenters) recognized as separate jatis. - Jatis, not varnas, became the societal norm.

2. Rise of Rajputs and Tribal Shifts: 2.1. Emergence of Rajputs: - By the 11th and 12th centuries, new Rajput clans (previously tribes) rose to power, replacing old rulers in agricultural regions. 2.2. Tribal Assimilation and Resistance: - Tribes became part of the caste system with Brahmanas' support, but only leading families joined the ruling class. - Tribes in regions like Punjab and Sind adopted Islam, rejecting the caste system.

3. States and Tribal Societies: 3.1. Gonds: - Inhabited Gondwana and practiced shifting cultivation. - Established kingdoms like Garha Katanga; society eventually stratified into classes. - Experienced conflict with the Mughals, leading to their decline. 3.2. Ahoms: - Migrated from Myanmar, and created a state by overthrowing the Bhuiyans. - Utilized firearms and forced labor (paiks); faced Mughal invasions but maintained control. - Underwent cultural and religious shifts, with the increased influence of Brahmanas and Hinduism.

4. Conclusion: 4.1. Dynamic Social Interactions: - Interaction between varna-based and tribal societies led to mutual adaptation and change. 4.2. Diverse Tribal Pathways: - Tribes followed different paths: merging with caste society, rejecting orthodox systems, or establishing significant states.

Maps

Additional Concepts

1. Tribal Societies: 1.1. Tribal Areas: - Tribal people predominantly inhabited forests, hills, and other remote locales. 1.2. Tribal Life and Occupations: - Activities included hunting, dancing, and possibly shifting cultivation (evidenced by related artifacts and paintings).

2. Nomads and Itinerant Groups: 2.1. Lifestyle and Occupations: - Nomads, often pastoralists, moved with their herds, while itinerant groups (craftspersons, pedlars, entertainers) traveled for trade or work. 2.2. Banjaras: - Significant trader-nomads, known for their tandas (caravans) and vital role in goods transportation.

3. Social Structure and Occupational Roles: 3.1. Jati Deliberations: - Historical records like the twelfth-century inscription show societal discussions determining the occupational roles of different jatis (e.g., rathakaras).

4. Tribal Practices: 4.1. Shifting Cultivation: - A traditional agricultural practice where forested land is cleared, burnt, and cultivated until its fertility decreases.

5. Mughal Conquests: 5.1. Motivations: - The Mughals likely sought control over the Ahoms' land for reasons such as resource acquisition, territorial expansion, or the assertion of imperial power.

Keywords Definitions:

varna: One of the four social classes in the Vedic society, namely Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.

jati: Sub-castes or communities within the Indian social hierarchy, often determined by birth and occupation.

tanda: A caravan or collective journey, often used in the context of the Banjaras, who traveled in groups with their goods and families.

garh: A term used in the context of the Gonds, referring to a fort or a fortified residence/place.

chaurasi: A unit in the Gond kingdom, comprising 84 villages.

barhot: A smaller unit within the Gond administrative system, consisting of 12 villages.

bhuiyans: Landlords or local chieftains, particularly in the context of Assam and its surrounding areas.

paik: A term used in the Ahom kingdom referring to forced laborers or militia members.

khel: Clans or sub-groups within a tribe, particularly among the Ahoms.

buranji: Historical works, often chronicles or annals, especially in the context of the Ahom kingdom in Assam.

census: An official count or survey of a population, typically recording various details of individuals.

Chapter 6 - Devotional Paths to the Divine

The Idea of Supreme God

1. Evolution of Devotional Practices:

Intense devotion practices such as rituals, bhajans, kirtans, and qawwalis have their roots in bhakti and Sufi movements since the eighth century.

2. Religious Beliefs Pre-Kingdom Era:

Before large kingdoms, groups worshipped their deities.

With the growth of towns and empires, new religious ideas emerged.

3. Concepts of Life and Social Hierarchy:

Belief in the cyclical nature of life (rebirth based on deeds).

Social inequality was accepted, with privileges for “noble” births and “high” castes.

4. Alternative Philosophies:

Discontent with social inequality led to the popularity of Buddhism and Jainism, emphasizing personal effort to overcome differences and the cycle of rebirth.

5. Emergence of the Idea of a Supreme God:

The concept of a Supreme God capable of delivering devotees from life's bondage gained popularity (as seen in the Bhagavadgita).

6. Integration of Local Deities into a Supreme Pantheon:

Shiva, Vishnu, and Durga emerged as supreme deities, assimilating local gods and goddesses.

Local myths merged with Puranic stories, and Puranic worship methods integrated into local cults.

7. Bhakti's Universal Appeal:

Bhakti became popular for its promise of God's grace irrespective of caste, influencing even Buddhist and Jaina practices.

Fig. 1 A page from a south Indian manuscript of the Bhagavad Gita.

Evolution of Bhakti in South India

1. Emergence of New Bhakti Movements: 1.1. Nayanars and Alvars (7th-9th centuries): - Saints from various castes, critical of Buddhists and Jainas. - Advocated love for Shiva/Vishnu, drawing from Sangam literature. - Composed poems in praise of deities, promoting bhakti. - Chola and Pandya kings built temples, linking bhakti with temple worship. - Compilation of poems and hagiographies.

2. Philosophical Foundations: 2.1. Shankara (8th century): - Advocated Advaita, emphasizing oneness with the Supreme God. - World as illusion (Maya); salvation through knowledge and renunciation. 2.2. Ramanuja (11th century): - Inspired by Alvars; salvation through devotion to Vishnu. - Doctrine of Vishishtadvaita; soul remains distinct even in union with God.

3. Virashaivism: 3.1. Led by Basavanna (12th century): - Promoted equality, opposed caste system, ritualism, and idol worship.

4. Bhakti in the Deccan: 4.1. Saint-poets in Maharashtra (13th-17th centuries): - Works in simple Marathi, focused on Vitthala temple and personal god. - Rejected ritualism and social differences; lived ordinary lives. - Emphasized compassion and humanistic values.

5. Nathpanthis, Siddhas, and Yogis: 5.1. Critique of Conventional Religion: - Advocated renunciation, meditation on formless reality, and yoga practices. - Gained popularity among lower castes, paving the way for devotional religion.

Islam and Sufism

1. Commonalities between Sants and Sufis: 1.1. Shared Principles: - Both rejected outward religiosity. - Emphasized love, devotion to God and compassion for all.

2. Emergence and Principles of Sufism: 2.1. Origins and Beliefs: - Muslim mystics, known for their personal devotion to God. - Advocated strict monotheism. 2.2. Development: - Sufism provided a more personal dimension to Islam, beyond complex rituals. - Sought union with God, emphasizing love over ritual. 2.3. Literary Contributions: - Composed rich literature, including poems, anecdotes, and fables. 2.4. Influential Sufis: - Notable figures included Ghazzali, Rumi, and Sadi.

3. Sufi Practices: 3.1. Training and Methods: - Used zikr, contemplation, sama, raqs, parable discussion, breath control. - Guidance under a master or pir. 3.2. Silsilas: - Emergence of spiritual genealogies, each with unique instructional methods (tariqa).

4. Sufism in the Indian Subcontinent: 4.1. Settlement and Influence: - Many Sufis settled in Hindustan in the 11th century. - Establishment of major Sufi centers within the Delhi Sultanate. 4.2. Chishti Silsila: - One of the most influential orders, with notable teachers. 4.3. Khanqahs: - Sufi gatherings held in hospices, attended by all levels of society. - Spiritual discussions, blessings, music, and dance sessions. 4.4. Dargahs: - Tombs of Sufi saints, places of pilgrimage for people of all faiths. - Sufi masters are often attributed with miraculous powers.

Evolution of Religious Development in North India

1. Bhakti Movement in North India (Post-13th Century): 1.1. Context: - Era of religious intermingling (Islam, Hinduism, Sufism, bhakti, etc.). - New kingdoms rising; people exploring new professions and roles. 1.2. Influential Figures: - Kabir and Baba Guru Nanak: Rejected orthodox religions. - Tulsidas and Surdas: Sought to make existing beliefs accessible to all. 1.3. Key Contributions: - Tulsidas: Composed "Ramcharitmanas" in Awadhi, venerating Rama. - Surdas: Composed devotional songs for Krishna, compiled in "Sursagara," "Surasaravali," and "Sahitya Lahari." - Shankaradeva: Promoted devotion to Vishnu, and established namghars in Assam. 1.4. Inclusive Saints: - Dadu Dayal, Ravidas, Mirabai: Challenged caste norms, and embraced devotion beyond social barriers.

2. Kabir's Philosophy: 2.1. Background: - Lived in the 15th-16th centuries, raised by a Muslim family. - Ideas known through verses, "sakhis" and "pads." 2.2. Teachings: - Rejected religious traditions and external worship. - Advocated for a formless Supreme God, salvation through devotion. - Used spoken Hindi for his poetry, attracting diverse followers.

3. Baba Guru Nanak and the Sikh Tradition: 3.1. Life and Teachings: - Founded the Sikh tradition, emphasized devotion beyond caste or creed. - Established a community with regular worship and a communal kitchen (langar). - Successors compiled his teachings in Gurmukhi, forming the Guru Granth Sahib. 3.2. Community Development: - Followers increased, contributing to community funds, leading to a self-governing community. - Amritsar's Harmandar Sahib (Golden Temple) became a spiritual and community center. 3.3. Political Evolution: - Sikh community gained political significance, leading to the Khalsa's establishment by Guru Gobind Singh. - Emphasized active life, social commitment, and equality, impacting social and political structures.

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Additional Concepts

1. The Advent of Bhakti: 1.1. Characteristics: - Devotion (Bhakti) to deities like Shiva, Vishnu, and Durga. - Accessible to all, irrespective of social status or gender. - Central concept in the Bhagavad Gita. 1.2. Regional Developments: - Integration of local myths and legends into wider religious narratives.

2. Key Figures in Bhakti Movement: 2.1. Nayanars and Alvars: - 63 Nayanars (e.g., Appar, Sambandar) and 12 Alvars (e.g., Periyalvar, Andal); diverse backgrounds. - Compositions: Tevaram, Tiruvacakam, Divya Prabandham. 2.2. Virashaiva Movement (Basavanna): - Advocated equality, dismissed ritualistic worship. - Vachanas: emphasized personal devotion, and social equality. 2.3. Vaishnava Poet-Saints: - Figures like Jnaneshwar, and Namadeva; devotion to Vitthala. - The Varkari sect: emphasized pilgrimage and egalitarian practices. 2.4. Challenging Social Norms: - Tukaram, Chokhamela: Critiqued social inequalities, the caste system.

3. Sufism: 3.1. Overview: - Emphasized love, devotion to God, compassion towards all. 3.2. Prominent Figures: - Jalaluddin Rumi: a Sufi poet, stressed finding God within oneself. 3.3. Kashmiri Sufism: - Rishi order, founded by Sheikh Nuruddin Wali.

4. Bhakti Saints and Cultural Contributions: 4.1. Musical Innovations: - Devotional compositions in regional languages (e.g., bhajans, kirtans). 4.2. Reformist Stances: - Mirabai, Kabir: Challenged traditional norms, and advocated divine love.

5. Sikh Tradition: 5.1. Guru Nanak: - Founded Sikhism; egalitarian practices, community meals (langar). 5.2. Scriptural Compilation: - Guru Granth Sahib: Sacred text, includes teachings of various saints.

6. Comparative Philosophies: 6.1. Shared Themes: - Internal devotion, equality, God within the heart (e.g., Basavanna, Kabir, Rumi).

Keywords:

Virashaivism: A movement centered around Shiva, advocating social equality and personal devotion, initiated by Basavanna.

Bhakti: A form of devotion directed towards a personal deity, transcending caste or social barriers.

Sufi: Muslim mystics seeking a personal, mystical union with God, often through prayer, meditation, and chants.

Khanqah: A building designed specifically for gatherings of a Sufi brotherhood, or tariqa, used for spiritual retreat and character reformation.

Chapter 7 - The Making of Regional Culture

Different Regions, Culture, and Language

1. Regional Identities and Culture: 1.1. Language and Identity: - People are often identified by the language they speak (e.g., Tamil, Oriya). - Implies residency in associated regions (e.g., Tamil Nadu, Orissa). 1.2. Cultural Markers: - Regions have unique food, attire, literature, arts, and music. - These cultural identifiers are not static but evolve over time.

2. Evolution of Regional Frontiers: 2.1. Changing Boundaries: - Regional borders have historically been fluid and continue to change. 2.2. Cultural Interactions: - Present-day regional cultures are amalgamations of local traditions and external influences.

3. Diversity and Commonality: 3.1. Variety in Traditions: - Some cultural practices are region-specific, while others are common across different regions. 3.2. Cultural Adaptations: - Certain traditions originate in one area but transform when practiced in other regions.

4. Understanding Regional Cultures: 4.1. Complex Formations: - Regional identities are not eternal; they're formed through historical, social, and cultural processes. 4.2. Dynamic Nature: - The perception of regional cultures as monolithic is misleading; they're dynamic and multifaceted.

The Cheras and Development of Malyalam

1. The Cheras and Malayalam: 1.1. Establishment of the Chera Kingdom: - Formed in the ninth century. - Located in present-day Kerala, known as Mahodayapuram. 1.2. Introduction of Malayalam: - Malayalam is likely the native language of the region. - The rulers initiated the use of Malayalam in official inscriptions. - This act marks one of the earliest instances of a regional language used in official records in the subcontinent.

2. Cultural Synthesis: 2.1. Influence of Sanskrit: - Despite the promotion of Malayalam, the Cheras were also influenced by Sanskritic traditions. - Temple theatre of the period depicted stories from Sanskrit epics. 2.2. Literary Developments: - The first Malayalam literary works (circa twelfth century) show strong Sanskrit influence. 2.3. Lilatilakam: - A fourteenth-century text on grammar and poetics. - Written in Manipravalam, symbolizing a confluence of Sanskrit (diamonds) and the regional language (corals).

Rulers and Religious Traditions

1. Rulers and Religious Traditions: 1.1. Jagannatha Cult: - Centered in Puri, Orissa. - "Jagannatha" means "lord of the world," a title for Vishnu. - The cult likely originated from a local tribal deity, later identified with Vishnu. - The wooden image of the deity is still made by local tribal people.

2. Ganga Dynasty and Jagannatha: 2.1. Anantavarman's Contribution: - Ruler in the twelfth century. - Erected a temple for Purushottama Jagannatha at Puri. 2.2. King Anangabhima III: - Dedicated his kingdom to Jagannatha in 1230. - Proclaimed himself the deity's "deputy."

3. Political Significance of the Jagannatha Temple: 3.1. Rise in Authority: - Temple became an important pilgrimage center. - Gained significant social and political power. 3.2. Conquest and Control: - Conquerors of Orissa (Mughals, Marathas, English East India Company) sought control over the temple. - Control deemed crucial for local legitimacy and acceptance.

The Rajputs and Traditions of Heroism

1. Rajputs and Cultural Identity: 1.1. Region and Demography: - 19th-century Rajasthan known as "Rajputana" by the British. - Area not solely inhabited by Rajputs; presence of various other groups. 1.2. Rajputs' Contribution: - Significant influence on Rajasthan's distinctive culture. - Culture interlinked with rulers' ideals and aspirations.

2. Rule and Heroism: 2.1. Rajput Rule: - From the 8th century, Rajasthan was mostly governed by Rajput families. - Included rulers like Prithviraj. 2.2. Ideals of Heroism: - Valor in battle, choosing death over defeat. - Stories of heroism preserved in poems and songs, performed by minstrels. - Aimed to inspire bravery and heroism among listeners.

3. Cultural Depictions and Societal Impact: 3.1. Role of Stories: - Attracted ordinary people; depicted loyalty, friendship, love, valor, anger, etc. 3.2. Women in Heroic Narratives: - Occasionally featured, often following their husbands in life and death. - Stories of sati practices; heroic ideals sometimes led to tragic ends.

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The Story of Kathak

1. Origins and Evolution of Kathak: 1.1. Etymology: - "Kathak" derives from "Katha," meaning story. 1.2. Early Form: - Originated as a storytelling art form in north Indian temples. - Involved gestures and songs performed by a cast of storytellers (kathaks).

2. Development and Diversification: 2.1. Bhakti Movement Influence (15th-16th centuries): - Evolved into a unique dance form during the Bhakti movement. - Rasa lila plays portraying Radha-Krishna legends incorporated Kathak elements. 2.2. Mughal Patronage: - Gained prominence in Mughal courts, acquiring current features and style. - Led to two major traditions (gharanas): Jaipur and Lucknow.

3. Cultural Expansion: 3.1. 19th Century Growth: - Under Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Awadh, became a significant art form. - Spread to regions like Punjab, Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir, Bihar, and Madhya Pradesh. 3.2. Characteristics: - Focus on rapid footwork, elaborate costumes, and storytelling.

4. Colonial Period and Post-independence: 4.1. British Disapproval: - Viewed negatively by most British administrators. 4.2. Survival and Recognition: - Continued in the courtesan community. - Post-independence, acknowledged as one of six classical dance forms in India.

Painting for Patrons: The Tradition of Miniatures

1. Introduction to Miniature Paintings: 1.1. Definition and Characteristics: - Small-sized artworks, typically watercolor on cloth or paper. - Initially illustrated on palm leaves or wood. 1.2. Origins: - Earliest forms found in western India, illustrating Jaina texts.

2. Mughal Influence and Patronage: 2.1. Royal Patronage: - Promoted by Mughal emperors like Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan. - Used to illustrate manuscripts, historical accounts, and poetry. 2.2. Themes and Styles: - Vivid colors, depicting court life, battles, hunts, and social scenes. - Exclusivity in viewership, primarily the emperor and close associates.

3. Spread and Diversification Post-Mughal Empire: 3.1. Migration to Regional Courts: - Artists moved to Deccan and Rajput courts amidst the Mughal decline. - Influence mixed with local styles, leading to unique regional art forms. 3.2. Popular Themes: - Portraits, court scenes, mythology, and poetry. - Notable centers included Mewar, Jodhpur, Bundi, Kota, and Kishangarh.

4. Development in the Himalayan Region: 4.1. Basohli Paintings: - Emerged in the Himalayan foothills, known for bold, intense styles. - Bhanudatta's 'Rasamanjari' was a popular subject. 4.2. Kangra School: - Originated post-Nadir Shah's invasion as artists migrated for stability. - Inspired by Vaishnavite traditions, known for soft colors and lyrical themes.

5. Art Beyond Royalty: 5.1. Folk Art: - Common people engaged in art, painting on pots, walls, floors, and cloth. - These artworks, though less preserved, were integral to cultural heritage.

A Closer Look: Bengal

1. Evolution of Bengali Language: 1.1. Origins: - Early Sanskrit texts indicate non-Sanskritic language in Bengal. The influence of Sanskrit grew due to commercial and political ties from the 4th-3rd centuries BCE. 1.2. Development: - Gupta rulers promoted Sanskrit in North Bengal. - By the 7th century, Sanskrit-related languages were prevalent in Bengal. - Bengali emerged as a regional language, evolving through several stages and incorporating words from various languages.

2. Early Bengali Literature: 2.1. Sanskrit Influence: - Translations of Sanskrit epics, Mangalakavyas, and bhakti literature. 2.2. Independent Works: - Nath literature, folklore, and ballads, often transmitted orally.

3. Pirs and Religious Syncretism: 3.1. Settlements and Social Changes: - 16th-century migrations to south-eastern Bengal led to new communities. - Mughal control was established in the eastern delta, Dhaka. 3.2. Pir Cult: - Community leaders, seen as spiritual guides, gained the status of pirs. - Pirs included a diverse range of religious personalities and deities.

4. Temple Construction in Bengal: 4.1. Socio-Economic Background: - Temple-building peaked from the 15th to the 19th century, often sponsored by rising social groups. - Temples as indicators of social status and piety. 4.2. Architectural Style: - Evolution of the Bengali style, inspired by local huts. - Use of terracotta tablets, ornamental tiles, and paintings for decoration.

5. Fish in Bengali Culture: 5.1. Culinary Significance: - Prominence in diet due to abundant local availability. - Depicted in literature, temple art, and daily life. 5.2. Religious Adaptation: - Local Brahmanas allowed consuming fish, deviating from traditional Brahmanical norms.

Additional Concepts

1. Classical Art Forms: 1.1. Definition Complexity: - Criteria for "classical" status: religious themes, skill level, adherence to established rules. 1.2. Classical vs. Folk: - Similarities exist, challenging the superiority implied by the "classical" designation. 1.3. Examples of Classical Dances: - Bharatanatyam, Kathakali, Odissi, Kuchipudi, Manipuri.

2. Cultural Artifacts: 2.1. Historical Inscriptions and Manuscripts: - Early Kerala inscriptions in Malayalam. - Palm-leaf manuscripts in Orissa. 2.2. Miniature Paintings: - Examples from Mughal and Rajput traditions.

3. Regional Deities and Ascetic Traditions: 3.1. Nath Tradition: - Ascetics with yogic practices. - Stories like Maynamati and Gopichandra emphasize asceticism. 3.2. Dharma Thakur: - Regional deity, simple worship forms.

4. Architectural Influences: 4.1. Thatched Huts and Temples: - Temples mimicking local housing styles. 4.2. Terracotta Art: - Scenes on temple plaques, e.g., Vishnupur and Arambagh.

Keywords:

Classical: Pertaining to a form of art, literature, or music that adheres to traditional methods, is recognized for its historical importance, and is often considered a model of form or technique.

Miniature: In art, specifically refers to small, finely detailed paintings, often used in historical manuscripts or as portraits. In a broader context, it can refer to anything of a much smaller size than normal.

Pir: In Islamic tradition, a pir is a spiritual guide or teacher, often associated with Sufism. The term can also refer to a saint or a revered religious leader.

Dialect: A particular form of a language that is specific to a region or social group, often differing from the standard language in terms of pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary.

Animism: The religious belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence or soul. Animism perceives all things—animals, plants, rocks, rivers, weather systems, human handiwork, and perhaps even words—as animated and alive.

Chapter 8 - Eighteenth-Century Political Formation

The New Beginning

1. Political Shifts in the 18th Century: 1.1. Significant Changes: - The first half of the 18th century marked dramatic shifts in the political landscape of the Indian subcontinent. 1.2. Mughal Empire's Transformation: - Post-1707 (Aurangzeb's death): The empire's boundaries were altered due to the rise of independent kingdoms. 1.3. British Territorial Expansion: - By 1765, the British had seized considerable territories in eastern India.

2. Timeframe of Developments: 2.1. Period Overview: - The focus is from 1707 to 1761, highlighting rapid political changes. 2.2. Key Historical Markers: - Start: 1707, death of Aurangzeb. - End: 1761, following the third battle of Panipat.

3. Emergence of New Political Entities: 3.1. Independent Kingdoms: - The weakening of the Mughal Empire allowed various regions to establish self-governance. 3.2. British Influence: - Concurrent with internal shifts, external forces (primarily the British) were expanding their foothold.

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The Crisis of the Empire and the Later Mughals

1. Mughal Empire's Decline: 1.1. Aurangzeb's Policies: - Depleted empire's resources due to prolonged Deccan wars. 1.2. Administrative Breakdown: - Post-Aurangzeb, the empire faced administrative inefficiencies.

2. Rise of the Mansabdars and Governors: 2.1. Uncontrolled Power: - Later Mughals couldn't control powerful mansabdars or governors (subadars). 2.2. Consolidation of Power: - Governors often held both revenue and military powers, gaining immense regional control.

3. Economic Strains and Rebellions: 3.1. Peasant Uprisings: - Caused by heavy taxes and local chieftains' power moves. 3.2. Zamindari Revolts: - Both economic and power-consolidation motives.

4. External Invasions: 4.1. Nadir Shah's Invasion (1739): - Plundered Delhi, causing significant wealth drainage. 4.2. Ahmad Shah Abdali's Raids (1748-1761): - Repeated invasions further weakened the Mughal Empire.

5. Internal Noble Conflicts: 5.1. Factions within the Empire: - Iranis vs. Turanis (Turkish descent nobles). 5.2. Violence Against Emperors: - Assassinations and blinding incidents; emperors reduced to puppets.

6. Emergence of Regional Powers: 6.1. Decline of Central Authority: - Enabled provincial governors and zamindars to assert authority. 6.2. Independent Rule: - Regions like Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad saw local powers consolidating control.

The Rajputs

1. Rajput Kingdoms in the 18th Century: 1.1. Historical Background: - Rajput rulers from Amber and Jodhpur had been loyal to the Mughals. - They maintained significant autonomy in their watan jagirs (hereditary territories). 1.2. Expansionist Ambitions: - Post-Mughal decline, these rulers sought to expand their territories.

2. Political Maneuvers: 2.1. Involvement in Mughal Politics: - Rajput rulers, like Ajit Singh of Jodhpur, engaged in Mughal court politics. 2.2. Claims Over Rich Provinces: - Rajputs targeted lucrative provinces, with Ajit Singh and Sawai Raja Jai Singh obtaining governorships in Gujarat and Malwa, respectively.

3. Territorial Gains: 3.1. Annexations and Conquests: - Examples include Nagaur (added to Jodhpur) and parts of Bundi (seized by Amber). 3.2. Establishment of New Capitals: - Sawai Raja Jai Singh founded Jaipur and was appointed governor of Agra in 1722.

4. Maratha Interference: 4.1. Pressure from Maratha Campaigns: - Starting in the 1740s, Maratha expansions into Rajasthan challenged Rajput principalities. 4.2. Limitation of Rajput Expansion: - Maratha activities restricted further territorial ambitions of the Rajput states.

Seizing Independence

1. The Sikhs: 1.1. Formation and Revolts: - Political community formed in the 17th century. - Guru Gobind Singh fought against Rajput and Mughal rulers. - Post-1708: Khalsa revolted against Mughal authority under Banda Bahadur's leadership. 1.2. Organization and Resistance: - Formed jathas and misls, collectively known as the grand army (dal khalsa). - Introduced the rakhi system for the protection of cultivators. - Successfully resisted Mughal governors and Ahmad Shah Abdali. 1.3. Establishment of Sovereignty: - Declared independence by striking coins in 1765. - Late 18th century: territories extended from Indus to Jamuna, divided under different rulers. - 1799: Maharaja Ranjit Singh established the capital at Lahore.

2. The Marathas: 2.1. Rise and Expansion: - Shivaji established a stable kingdom in the 17th century. - Post-Shivaji: power held by Chitpavan Brahmanas (Peshwas). - Expanded empire significantly between 1720 and 1761, encroaching on Mughal territories. 2.2. Military and Administrative Success: - Developed effective military strategies and administration. - Encouraged agriculture, revived trade, and established new trade routes. - Cities like Ujjain and Indore prospered under Maratha rule.

3. The Jats: 3.1. Consolidation of Power: - Gained prominence in the late 17th and 18th centuries. - Dominated region between Delhi and Agra. 3.2. Economic Prosperity and Military Strength: - Prosperous agriculturists; Panipat and Ballabhgarh became important trading centers. - Bharatpur emerged as a strong state under Suraj Mal. - Jawahir Shah maintained a large army, including hired Maratha and Sikh troops. 3.3. Architectural Developments: - Built traditional and new-style structures, like the Bharatpur fort and the elaborate garden palace at Dig.

Additional Concepts

1. Financial Bankruptcy of the Empire: 1.1. Lords were impoverished despite peasants' rich harvests. 1.2. Collapse of order and administration affected the lords' ability to maintain armed forces.

2. Nadir Shah's Invasion: 2.1. Loot included immense wealth, with significant cultural and monetary loss. 2.2. Devastation of Delhi led to social chaos and economic disruption.

3. Rajput Defiance and Fortifications: 3.1. Mewar, under Rana Pratap, resisted Mughal authority. 3.2. Construction of forts as centers of power and culture, e.g., Chittorgarh Fort with advanced water structures.

4. Raja Jai Singh's Influence: 4.1. Held significant power and territories. 4.2. Constructed astronomical observatories, known as Jantar Mantar, across various cities.

5. Emergence of the Maratha State: 5.1. Shivaji's leadership led to the establishment of the Maratha state. 5.2. Use of guerrilla warfare and efficient administrative systems.

6. Expansion under Baji Rao I: 6.1. Significant expansion of the Maratha kingdom. 6.2. Noted for military campaigns and confrontations with various forces.

7. Jat Power under Suraj Mal: 7.1. Zenith of power during 1756–1763, with control over vast areas. 7.2. Construction of strong forts and palaces, e.g., Lohagarh fort in Bharatpur.

Keywords:

Subadari: A term referring to the governorship or the office and jurisdiction of a subahdar or governor in Mughal and other Indian empires.

Dal Khalsa: The combined forces of the Sikh warriors organized into jathas, forming a collective decision-making body.

Misl: Independent armed Sikh groups in 18th century India, each led by a different leader, contributing to the Dal Khalsa.

Faujdari: Relating to the military or criminal jurisdiction of a faujdar, a local representative of the emperor in the Mughal empire.

Ijaradari: A revenue collection system where rights to collect taxes were auctioned off to revenue farmers (ijaradars).

Chauth: A regular tax or tribute amounting to 25% of the revenue or produce, collected mainly by the Marathas in India.

Sardeshmukhi: An additional 9-10% tax on top of Chauth, claimed by the Maratha Sardar on the territories over which he held hereditary rights.

✅Medieval History - Class 7: Our Past - II