✅Medieval India - Class 12: Themes in Indian History

Chapter 5 - Through the Eyes of Travellers

Perception of Society (10th to 17th Century)

Travelers' Accounts and Their Contributions to Historical Knowledge

1. Introduction to Travelers' Accounts:

1.1 Motivations for Travel:

People traveled for work, to escape disasters, as traders, soldiers, priests, pilgrims, or adventurers.

1.2 Encountering New Worlds:

Travelers often faced new landscapes, customs, languages, beliefs, and practices.

1.3 Adaptation and Observation:

Some adapted to new environments, while others recorded remarkable differences in detailed accounts.

1.4 Lack of Women's Accounts:

Despite known travels by women, their accounts are virtually non-existent in historical records.

2. Varieties in Travel Accounts:

2.1 Diverse Focus:

Accounts varied from court affairs, and religious issues, to architectural features and monuments.

2.2 Example of Detailed Accounts:

Abdur Razzaq Samarqandi provided an important description of Vijayanagara in the 15th century.

2.3 Local Travelers:

In the Mughal Empire, administrators traveled within the empire, recording observations of customs and folklore.

3. Case Studies of Notable Travelers:

3.1 Al-Biruni (11th Century):

Origin: Uzbekistan. Noted for detailed observations of Indian social life, philosophy, and culture.

3.2 Ibn Battuta (14th Century):

Origin: Morocco. Traveled extensively in Africa, Asia, and Europe, recording diverse cultures and practices.

3.3 François Bernier (17th Century):

Origin: France. His accounts provide a perspective on Mughal India, focusing on social conditions and political scenarios.

4. Significance of Travelers' Accounts:

4.1 Unique Perspectives:

Provided insights into everyday activities often overlooked by indigenous writers.

4.2 Audience and Purpose:

Travelers wrote for different audiences, from fellow countrymen to patrons or for personal records.

Al-Biruni and the Kitab-ul-Hind

1. Al-Biruni's Background:

1.1 Early Life and Education:

Born in 973 in Khwarizm, present-day Uzbekistan, a renowned center of learning.
Multilingual: knew Syriac, Arabic, Persian, Hebrew, and Sanskrit; familiar with Greek philosophical works through Arabic translations.

1.2 Move to Ghazni:

Taken to Ghazni in 1017 by Sultan Mahmud during the invasion of Khwarizm.
Initially a hostage, he grew fond of Ghazni, spending his life there till his death at 70.

2. Developing Interest in India:

2.1 Cultural Exchange:

From the 8th century, Sanskrit works (astronomy, math, medicine) were translated into Arabic.
Al-Biruni was intrigued by India during Punjab's inclusion in the Ghaznavid empire, leading to increased cultural interactions.

2.2 Learning and Travel:

Spent years with Brahmana priests and scholars, learning Sanskrit and studying religious texts.
Likely traveled extensively in Punjab and parts of northern India.

3. Al-Biruni’s Work - Kitab-ul-Hind:

3.1 Characteristics of the Text:

Written in Arabic, simple and clear style.
Comprehensive: 80 chapters covering religion, philosophy, festivals, astronomy, social life, customs, laws, etc.

3.2 Structural Approach:

Each chapter: a question, a description based on Sanskritic traditions, and a comparison with other cultures.
This structured approach is possibly influenced by his mathematical background.

3.3 Intended Audience and Critical Stance:

Written for people on the subcontinent's frontiers.
Aware of translations of Sanskrit, Pali, and Prakrit texts into Arabic but aimed to enhance the quality and presentation of information.

IBN Battuta’s Rihla

1. Ibn Battuta's Background:

1.1 Early Life and Education:

Born in Tangier, Morocco, into a family known for expertise in Islamic religious law (shari‘a).
Received a literary and scholastic education at a young age.

1.2 Philosophy of Travel:

Valued experiential knowledge from travels over traditional book learning.
Passionate about exploring new worlds, cultures, and peoples.

2. Extensive Travels:

2.1 Before India:

Pilgrimage to Mecca; travels in Syria, Iraq, Persia, Yemen, Oman, and East Africa.

2.2 Journey to India:

Reached Sind in 1333, drawn to Delhi by Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq's patronage.
Became the qazi (judge) of Delhi, faced imprisonment, was reinstated, and was sent to China as an envoy in 1342.

2.3 Beyond India:

Traveled to Malabar, the Maldives (served as Qazi), Sri Lanka, Bengal, Assam, Sumatra, and China (up to Beijing).
Returned home in 1347; his travels were often compared with Marco Polo's.

3. Challenges of Fourteenth-Century Travel:

3.1 Duration and Rigor:

Long journeys: Multan to Delhi (40 days), Sind to Delhi (50 days), Daulatabad to Delhi (40 days), Gwalior to Delhi (10 days).

3.2 Dangers:

Frequent attacks by robbers; preferred caravan travel for safety but still faced threats.

4. Ibn Battuta's Rihla:

4.1 Recording the Journey:

Upon returning to Morocco, the local ruler ordered his travel stories be documented, leading to the creation of Rihla.

4.2 Content and Contribution:

Detailed observations of cultures, peoples, beliefs, and values; a critical resource on social and cultural life in the 14th century.

Map

François Bernier A Doctor with a Difference

1. Background:

1.1 European Travelers in India:

Post-1500: Arrival of Portuguese, followed by Dutch, English, and French.
Notable figures: Roberto Nobili, Duarte Barbosa, Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, and Manucci.

1.2 François Bernier:

French doctor, political philosopher, and historian.
In India from 1656 to 1668.
Physician to Prince Dara Shukoh, later associated with Danishmand Khan.

2. Bernier's Observations and Writings:

2.1 Travels and Comparisons:

Extensive travels in India, with observations often comparing India unfavorably with Europe.

2.2 Major Works:

Writings dedicated to Louis XIV and letters to officials.
Descriptions often portrayed India in a bleak light, though not always accurately.

2.3 Publication and Reception:

Works published in France (1670-71), translated into multiple European languages.
Reprinted multiple times due to popularity, unlike Arabic and Persian accounts, which remained in manuscript form.

3. Impact and Legacy:

3.1 Influence in Europe:

Bernier's writings were widely read and influenced European perceptions of India.

3.2 Contrast with Other Accounts:

Popularity contrasted with Arabic/Persian manuscripts, highlighting the growing influence of print and Europe's engagement with the "East."

Making Sense of an Alien World: Al-Biruni and the Sanskritic Tradition

1. Al-Biruni's Approach to Understanding India:

1.1 Barriers to Understanding:

Language differences: Sanskrit is vastly different from Arabic and Persian.
Divergent religious beliefs and practices.
Local population's self-absorption and insularity.

1.2 Reliance on Brahmanical Texts:

Despite barriers, heavily depended on Brahmanical works for understanding Indian society.
Sources included Vedas, Puranas, Bhagavad Gita, Patanjali's works, Manusmriti, etc.

2. Caste System Analysis:

2.1 Search for Parallels:

Compare the Indian caste system with social categories in ancient Persia.
Highlighted the universal nature of social divisions but noted the equality concept within Islam.

2.2 Critique of Pollution Concept:

Criticized the notion of pollution inherent in the caste system.
Argued the natural world's tendency towards purity, contrasting social pollution's contradiction with nature's laws.

3. Real-life Application of Caste System:

3.1 Flexibility in Practice:

The system is less rigid in real life compared to normative Sanskrit texts' descriptions.

3.2 Economic Inclusion of Marginalized:

"Antyaja" groups, though socially oppressed, are included within economic networks as essential labor providers.

4. Conclusion:

4.1 Al-Biruni's Legacy:

Despite challenges and personal biases, provided a comprehensive, comparative perspective on Indian society.
Utilized existing resources while critically engaging with social norms and practices.

Ibn Battuta and the Excitement of the Unfamiliar

1. Introduction:

1.1 Global Communication Network:

The 14th-century subcontinent is part of a global network from China to Europe.
Ibn Battuta's extensive travels included diverse cultural encounters and roles.

2. Novelty of Indian Produce:

2.1 Fascination with the Unfamiliar:

Emphasis on unfamiliar items like coconut and paan to captivate his audience.

3. Indian Cities through Ibn Battuta's Eyes:

3.1 Prosperity and Opportunities:

Cities are depicted as bustling with activity and prosperity.
Crowded streets and vibrant markets; examples include Delhi and Daulatabad.

3.2 Bazaars as Cultural Hubs:

Economic centers also host various cultural activities.
Presence of religious structures and spaces for artistic performances.

4. Economic Observations:

4.1 Source of Urban Wealth:

Towns' wealth is partly due to surplus appropriation from villages.

4.2 Agricultural Productivity:

Fertile lands allow for dual annual crops.

4.3 Trade and Commerce:

Integration with inter-Asian trade networks.
High demand for Indian textiles in West and Southeast Asia.

5. State Support for Commerce:

5.1 Merchant Encouragement:

Trade routes equipped with inns and guest houses.

5.2 Efficient Postal System:

An advanced system enabling swift information and goods exchange.
Example: News reaching Sultan from Sind in just five days, compared to a fifty-day travel time.

6. Conclusion:

6.1 Ibn Battuta's Contributions:

Detailed accounts provide valuable insights into 14th-century Indian socioeconomic conditions.
Emphasis on the excitement of encountering the unfamiliar, enhancing understanding of historical interconnectivity.

Bernier and the “Degenerate” East

1. Introduction:

1.1 Different Perspectives:

Bernier focused on contrasting India with Europe, highlighting negative aspects.
Aimed to influence European policy and thought by depicting a "degenerate" East.

2. Bernier's Observations:

2.1 Detailed Insights:

Emphasized critical insights, comparisons with Europe, and a sense of European superiority.
Presented India in binary opposition, often as inferior.

2.2 Land Ownership:

Cited the lack of private land ownership in Mughal India as detrimental.
Believed crown ownership discouraged long-term investment, leading to societal decline.

2.3 Social Structure:

Described Indian society as polarized between extreme wealth and poverty, with no middle class.
Depicted the Mughal Empire negatively, attributing issues to land ownership policies.

3. Impact and Influence:

3.1 Influencing Western Thought:

Ideas shaped concepts like "oriental despotism" and "Asiatic mode of production."
Influenced thinkers like Montesquieu and Karl Marx.

3.2 Critique:

Contradictions with historical records regarding land ownership and societal structure.
Oversimplified views of Indian rural society and urban centers.

4. Complex Social Reality:

4.1 Beyond Simplistic Depictions:

Acknowledged the prosperity of Indian merchants and the influx of precious metals.
Noted the existence of diverse, thriving towns contrary to his "camp towns" concept.

4.2 Merchant Communities:

Recognized prosperous merchants, community structures, and various professional classes.
Indicated an oversimplification in his critiques of Mughal society and economy.

5. Conclusion:

5.1 Bernier's Legacy:

Despite biases, contributed detailed observations of Mughal India.
His writings influenced Western perceptions of India and theoretical concepts in sociology and economics.

Women Slaves, Sati and Labourers

1. Overview

Male travelers documented the condition of women in the subcontinent, often perceiving social inequities as "natural."

Their accounts provide insights but were influenced by their cultural backgrounds.

2. Slavery in the Subcontinent

2.1 Slave Trade:

Slaves were common commodities, traded in markets, and given as gifts.
Ibn Battuta purchased slaves as gifts for Sultan Muhammad bin Tughlaq.

2.2 Differentiation Among Slaves:

Slaves had various roles; some female slaves were skilled in music and dance.
They were used for domestic labor, surveillance, entertainment, and transportation (e.g., palanquins).

3. Women's Conditions and Roles

3.1 Practice of Sati:

Highlighted by travelers like Bernier, some women embraced death in sati, while others were forced.

3.2 Economic Roles:

Women's labor was vital in agriculture and non-agriculture sectors.
Women in merchant families participated in trade and legal matters, indicating they weren't confined to private spaces.

4. Limitations and Future Explorations

4.1 Biases and Unseen Realities:

Travelers' observations were contextually limited, missing many aspects of social life.

4.2 Unknown Experiences:

Accounts of subcontinent natives traveling abroad remain largely unexplored.
Future historical inquiries may reveal more about their experiences and cultural exchanges.

Additional Concepts

1. Observations of Travellers

Various travelers documented unique aspects of the Indian subcontinent.

Their observations included social practices, economic conditions, and cultural peculiarities.

2. Al-Biruni's Objectives and Contributions

Aimed to provide comprehensive information about Hindu culture for those interested in religious discussions or social interactions.

Expert in languages translated Sanskrit works into Arabic and Greek texts into Sanskrit.

Critical yet curious about Indian traditions, questioning long-lasting wooden idols.

3. Hindu: Terminology and Identity

The term “Hindu” originally referred to geographical region and people, not religion.

It evolved from the Persian name for regions beyond the river Sindhu (Indus).

4. Ibn Battuta’s Travels and Observations

Left home at 22, and journeyed for about 30 years.

Documented social practices, architecture, and the postal system in India.

Noticed the differentiation among slaves and their roles.

5. Women: Roles and Challenges

Women's lives involved more than just the practice of sati; their economic contributions were significant.

Slave women were utilized for various services, including espionage.

6. European Travellers: Perspectives and Comparisons

European writings shaped the image of India globally.

Bernier’s accounts highlighted the Mughal Empire's socio-economic conditions, warning Europe against similar governance.

7. Art, Craft, and Imperial Workshops

The subcontinent was known for its diverse artisan work and imperial karkhanas.

Skills included embroidery, painting, carpentry, and textile manufacturing.

8. Traveller Impressions and Interpretations

Travellers’ accounts were subjective, and influenced by their cultural backgrounds.

Abdur Razzaq found India peculiar yet admired its craftsmanship.

9. Economic Observations

Bernier acknowledged fertile lands and diverse commerce, yet criticized governance for widespread poverty.

Pelsaert noted extreme poverty and state exploitation.

10. Significant Travellers and Timelines

10th-11th centuries: Al-Biruni (973-1048)

13th century: Marco Polo (1254-1323)

14th century: Ibn Battuta (1304-1377)

15th century: Abd al-Razzaq (1413-1482), Afanasii Nikitin (1466-1472 in India)

16th century: Duarte Barbosa (1518), Seydi Ali Reis (1562), Antonio Monserrate (1536-1600)

17th century: Mahmud Wali Balkhi (1626-1631 in India), Peter Mundy (1600-1667), Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (1605-1689), François Bernier (1620-1688)

Chapter 6 - Bhakti-Sufi Traditions

Changes in Religious Beliefs and Devotional texts (8th to 18th Century)

"Religious Texts and Structures in Early India"

1. Religious Structures and Texts in the First Millennium CE

Landscape marked by religious edifices like stupas, monasteries, temples.

Beliefs and practices inferred from structures and textual traditions, including the Puranas.

2. Emergence of New Textual Sources

Poet-saints began oral compositions in regional languages, resonating with common people.

These compositions, often musical, were compiled posthumously by disciples or devotees.

3. Fluidity of Religious Traditions

Traditions were dynamic; followers often expanded on original teachings.

Modifications or abandonments occurred to suit varying socio-political or cultural contexts.

4. Challenges for Historians

Utilizing these sources is complex due to their fluid and evolving nature.

Determining original messages or factual accuracies requires critical analysis.

5. Role of Hagiographies

Biographies of saints, penned by followers, offer insights, albeit not always literally accurate.

They reveal how devotees interpreted the lives of influential religious figures.

6. Diversity and Dynamism

Sources from this period signify a time of religious vibrancy and diverse spiritual expressions.

A Mosaic of Religious Beliefs and Practices

"Diversity in Religious Beliefs and Practices in Early India"

1. Expansion of Deity Worship

Increased visibility of diverse gods/goddesses in sculptures and texts.

Extended worship of major deities: Vishnu, Shiva, and the goddess, each visualized in multiple forms.

1.1 Integration of Cults

Dissemination of Brahmanical ideas through Puranic texts in simple Sanskrit, targeting wider audiences including women and Shudras.

Brahmanas integrated beliefs and practices from various social groups, forming a dialogue between "great" Sanskritic Puranic and "little" traditions.

Example: Puri's Jagannatha (Vishnu) is worshipped in a unique local form.

Goddess cults: Local goddesses integrated into the Puranic hierarchy, identified with Lakshmi or Parvati.

1.2 Diversity and Conflict

Tantric practices: Open to all genders and social statuses, influenced Shaivism and Buddhism.

Evolution into Hinduism: Divergent practices and beliefs were eventually recognized as part of Hindu tradition.

Shift in Deity Importance: Vedic deities like Agni, Indra, and Soma became marginal; Vishnu, Shiva, and the goddess gained prominence.

Vedas are revered despite discrepancies with evolving practices.

Conflicts:

Vedic traditionalists opposed non-Vedic practices.
Tantric practitioners often disregarded Vedic authority.
Devotees' preference for Vishnu or Shiva caused tensions.
Strained relations with other traditions like Buddhism and Jainism.

2. Tradition of Devotion (Bhakti)

Bhakti has a history of nearly a thousand years, involving routine deity worship and ecstatic expressions.

Devotional singing was integral, especially in Vaishnava and Shaiva sects.

Poems of Prayer Early Traditions of Bhakti

"Early Bhakti Traditions and Sociopolitical Interactions"

1. Bhakti Movement Emergence

Poet-saints emerged as community leaders.

Inclusion of women and "lower castes," previously excluded from spiritual liberation.

Diverse forms of bhakti, accommodating various social backgrounds.

2. Bhakti Classification

Saguna (with attributes): Worship of specific deities (Shiva, Vishnu, Devi) in anthropomorphic forms.

Nirguna (without attributes): Worship of an abstract form of God.

2.1 Alvars and Nayanars

Early bhakti movements were led by Alvars (Vishnu devotees) and Nayanars (Shiva devotees).

Compositions in Tamil identified shrines for their deities; temples built at these sites became pilgrimage centers.

2.2 Caste System Challenge

Bhaktas from diverse backgrounds, including "untouchables," suggesting opposition to caste hierarchy.

Alvars and Nayanar compositions equated with Vedas, challenging Brahmanical authority.

2.3 Women in Bhakti

Presence of women poets like Andal (Vishnu devotee) and Karaikkal Ammaiyar (Shiva devotee).

Their existence and compositions challenged patriarchal norms.

2.4 State Relations

Early Tamil chiefdoms evolved into states (Pallavas, Pandyas).

Tamil bhakti poets often opposed Buddhism and Jainism, possibly due to competition for royal patronage.

Chola rulers (9th-13th centuries) supported Brahmanical and bhakti traditions, constructing temples, and making grants.

Magnificent temples and bronze sculptures of Shiva under Chola patronage.

Nayanars and Alvars revered by Vellala peasants; rulers sought their support.

Chola kings introduced Tamil Shaiva hymns in temples, and organized them into texts (Tevaram).

Inscriptions suggest Chola ruler Parantaka I consecrated images of Appar, Sambandar, and Sundarar in a Shiva temple.

The Virashaiva Tradition in Karnataka

1. Virashaiva Movement's Emergence

Founded in the 12th century by Brahmana Basavanna, a minister for the Kalachuri ruler.

Followers are known as Virashaivas (heroes of Shiva) or Lingayats (wearers of the linga).

2. Lingayats' Beliefs and Practices

Worship Shiva as a linga.

Men wear a small linga in a silver case, strung over the left shoulder.

Reverence for jangama (wandering monks).

Belief in unification with Shiva after death, negates the cycle of rebirth.

Unique funerary practice: burial instead of cremation.

3. Social Reform and Challenges

Opposed caste system and Brahmanical notions of "pollution."

Rejected the theory of rebirth.

Advocated for practices not approved by the Dharmashastras: post-puberty marriage and widow remarriage.

Gained followers from marginalized groups within the Brahmanical framework.

4. Documentation

Knowledge about the Virashaiva tradition comes from vachanas (sayings) written in Kannada by women and men in the movement.

Religious Ferment in North India

1. Worship in North India

Vishnu and Shiva were worshipped in temples, often with the support of rulers.

No evidence of compositions like those of the Alvars and Nayanars until the 14th century.

2. Emergence of Rajput States

Several Rajput states emerged in this period.

Brahmanas held significant positions, performing both secular and ritual functions.

Minimal challenges to the Brahmanical position.

3. Rise of Alternative Religious Leaders

Naths, Jogis, and Siddhas gained prominence.

Many originated from artisanal groups, like weavers.

Craft production increased with new urban centers and long-distance trade (Central and West Asia).

Questioned the authority of the Vedas.

Used regional languages for communication, which evolved into modern languages over time.

Despite popularity, lacked support from the ruling elites.

4. Political Shifts and Cultural Changes

The arrival of the Turks led to the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century.

Weakened many Rajput states and their associated Brahmanas.

The arrival of the Sufis brought significant cultural and religious changes.

New Strands in the Fabric Islamic Traditions

1. Historical Connections

The subcontinent had long-standing connections with lands beyond seas and mountains.

Arab merchants frequented ports along the western coast in the 1st millennium CE.

The 7th century marked the beginning of the region being part of the Islamic world.

2. Influence on Rulership

5.1 Faiths of rulers and subjects

Arab general Muhammad Qasim conquered Sind in 711.
The 13th century saw the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.
Muslim rulers were guided by the ulama according to the shari‘a.
Hindus, Christians, and Jews were given "zimmi" status under Muslim rulership.
Mughal rulers saw themselves as emperors of all peoples.

5.3 Names for Communities

Terms like "musalman" or "Muslim" weren’t used widely.
People identified based on regions (e.g., Turushka for Turkish rulers).
The general term "mlechchha" is used for migrants not observing caste norms.

3. Popular Practices

5.2 The Popular Practice of Islam

Five pillars of Islam: shahada, namaz/salat, zakat, sawm, hajj.
Diverse practices: Sunni, Shi'a, local customs, etc.
Khojahs disseminated Qur’an ideas through "ginans" in regional languages.
Arab Muslim traders in Kerala adopted local language and customs.
Mosque architecture blended universal features with local variations.

The Growth of Sufism

1. Introduction to Sufism

Emerged as a reaction against the materialism of the Caliphate.

Sufis emphasized salvation through devotion and love for God.

They sought a personal interpretation of the Qur’an based on experience.

2. Organizational Structure

6.1 Khanqahs and silsilas

By the 11th century, Sufism had literature on Quranic studies and practices.
Sufis organized communities around hospices or khanqahs.
Led by a shaikh, pir, or murshid who enrolled disciples and appointed successors.
Sufi silsilas (chains) represented continuous spiritual linkages from the master to the Prophet.
Rituals of initiation developed, involving an oath, wearing specific garments, and shaving hair.
The tomb shrine or dargah of a deceased shaikh became a pilgrimage site, especially on the death anniversary or urs.
Shaikhs, posthumously, were revered as walis and believed to be closer to God.

3. Variations in Sufi Practices

6.2 Outside the Khanqah

Some mystics had a radical interpretation of Sufi ideals.
They often ignored rituals and practiced extreme asceticism.
Known by various names: Qalandars, Madaris, Malangs, Haidaris, etc.
They were often called be-shari‘a for defying the shari‘a, in contrast to ba-shari‘a sufis who followed it.

The Chishtis in the Subcontinent

1. Introduction to Chishtis

The most influential Sufi group that migrated to India in the 12th century.

Adapted to the local environment and adopted Indian devotional traditions.

2. Life and Practices

7.1 Life in the Chishti Khanqah

Khanqah: center of social life.
Included small rooms, a large hall, and an open kitchen.
Khanqahs attracted people from various walks of life.
Practices assimilated local traditions.

7.2 Chishti devotionals: ziyarat and Qawwali

Ziyarat: the pilgrimage to tombs of Sufi saints.
Qawwali: use of music and dance for divine ecstasy.
Sama‘: performance of mystical music, integral to Chishtis.

7.3 Languages and Communication

Chishtis conversed in local languages, including Hindavi and Dakhani.
Sufi poetry ranged from love stories to lullabies and wedding songs.
The Sufis in Karnataka were influenced by bhakti traditions.

3. Sufis and the State

7.4 Sufis and the state

Chishti tradition emphasized austerity and distance from worldly power.
Sufis accepted donations but spent them on immediate requirements.
Sultans set up charitable trusts and granted tax-free land for hospices.
Sufis’ moral authority attracted people from all walks of life.
Sufis provided legitimation for kings and had the ability to intercede with God.
Kings desired association with Sufis and wanted tombs near Sufi shrines.
Occasional conflicts occurred between Sultans and Sufis over rituals and titles.

New Devotional Paths Dialogue and Dissent in Northern India

1. Introduction

Poet-saints engaged in dialogue with new social situations, ideas, and institutions.

2. Kabir's Teachings

8.1 Weaving a Divine Fabric: Kabir

Lived during the fourteenth-fifteenth centuries.
Verses ascribed to Kabir compiled in multiple traditions.
Poems reflect a blend of Islamic, Vedantic, and yogic traditions.
Challenged established religious practices, blending various religious ideas.
Debates persisted about his religious identity: Hindu or Muslim.

3. Teachings of Baba Guru Nanak

8.2 Baba Guru Nanak and the Sacred Word

Lived from 1469-1539 in Punjab.
Advocated nirguna bhakti, rejected rituals of both Hinduism and Islam.
Emphasized recitation of the Divine Name, composing hymns in Punjabi.
Organized followers into a community and set up rules for congregational worship.
Successors consolidated practices and distinguished themselves from Hindus and Muslims.
Guru Granth Sahib compiled a scripture, containing hymns of various poets.
Guru Gobind Singh founded Khalsa Panth and set its five symbols.

4. Mirabai's Devotion

8.3 Mirabai, the devotee princess

Lived during the fifteenth-sixteenth centuries.
Rajput princess who defied traditional roles saw Krishna as her lover.
Faced adversity from her family, became a wandering saint.
Possibly mentored by Raidas, a leather worker, indicating defiance of caste norms.
Did not form a specific sect, but remains a source of inspiration, especially in Gujarat and Rajasthan.

Reconstructing Histories of Religious Traditions

1. Introduction

Historians use diverse sources to study histories of religious traditions.

2. Significance of Different Sources

Sculpture and architecture provide insights but require understanding of context.

Textual traditions span various languages and styles, demanding diverse skills from historians.

3. Challenges and Dynamics

The continuity of religious traditions aids historians in tracing changes over time.

Historians must balance sensitivity and acknowledgment that religious traditions evolve.

Additional Concepts

1. Introduction

Religious traditions have deep roots and have been influenced and evolved through various teachers, practices, and interactions.

2. Great and Little Traditions

Introduced by sociologist Robert Redfield to describe the cultural practices of peasant societies.

"Great" traditions are practices from dominant social categories; "Little" traditions are local practices.

Both traditions changed through interaction.

3. Sufi Traditions

Various sources are used to understand Sufi traditions: treatises, malfuzat (conversations), maktubat (letters), tazkiras (biographies).

Sufis and their interactions with the state varied; some declined royal gifts, and others took on courtly roles.

Sufi practices like qawwali emerged and became widespread.

4. Devotional Literature and Teachers

Rich devotional literature emerged in various regions, e.g., vachanas by Basavanna, and compositions by Alvars.

Poets like Kabir challenged existing norms and emphasized universal spirituality.

5. Major Religious Teachers

Various teachers across different centuries and regions have contributed to religious traditions.

List of Major Teachers and Major Religious Teachers with Related Dates:

c. 500-800 CE

Appar, Sambandar, Sundaramurti (Tamil Nadu)

c. 800-900

Nammalvar, Manikkavachakar, Andal, Tondaradippodi (Tamil Nadu)

c.1000-1100

Al Hujwiri, Data Ganj Bakhsh (Punjab)
Ramanujacharya (Tamil Nadu)

c.1100-1200

Basavanna (Karnataka)

c.1200-1300

Jnanadeva, Muktabai (Maharashtra)
Khwaja Muinuddin Chishti (Rajasthan)
Bahauddin Zakariyya, Fariduddin Ganj- i Shakar (Punjab)
Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki (Delhi)

c.1300-1400

Lal Ded (Kashmir)
Lal Shahbaz Qalandar (Sind)
Nizamuddin Auliya (Delhi)
Ramananda (Uttar Pradesh)
Chokhamela (Maharashtra)
Sharafuddin Yahya Maneri (Bihar)

c.1400-1500

Kabir, Raidas, Surdas (Uttar Pradesh)
Baba Guru Nanak (Punjab)
Vallabhacharya (Gujarat)
Abdullah Shattari (Gwalior)
Muhammad Shah Alam (Gujarat)
Mir Sayyid Muhammad Gesu Daraz (Gulbarga)
Shankaradeva (Assam)
Tukaram (Maharashtra)

c.1500-1600

Sri Chaitanya (Bengal)
Mirabai (Rajasthan)
Shaikh Abdul Quddus Gangohi, Malik Muhammad Jaisi, Tulsidas (Uttar Pradesh)

c.1600-1700

Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (Haryana)
Miyan Mir (Punjab)

Chapter 7 - An Imperial Capital Vijayanagara

From 14th to 16th Century

"Vijayanagara Empire and City"

1. Introduction

Vijayanagara: Name for both a city and an empire in South India.

2. Establishment and Expansion

Founded in the 14th century.

At its peak, it extended from the river Krishna in the north to the southern tip of the Indian peninsula.

3. Decline

The city was sacked in 1565.

Fell into ruin by the 17th-18th centuries.

4. Legacy and Rediscovery

Locally remembered as "Hampi," a name derived from the local goddess Pampadevi.

Oral traditions, archaeological finds, monuments, inscriptions, and records contributed to the rediscovery of the empire by scholars.

The Discovery of Hampi

1. Initial Discovery

Who: Colonel Colin Mackenzie.

When: 1800.

Role: Engineer and antiquarian for the English East India Company.

Achievement: Prepared the first survey map of Hampi.

2. Source of Information

Based on memories of priests from:

Virupaksha temple.
Shrine of Pampadevi.

3. Photographic Documentation

Start: 1856.

Purpose: Allowed scholars to study the monuments.

4. Epigraphical Evidence

The collection of inscriptions began in 1836.

Found in temples at Hampi and other locations.

5. History Reconstruction

Information collated from various sources:

Inscriptions.
Accounts of foreign travellers.
Literature in Telugu, Kannada, Tamil, and Sanskrit.

Rayas, Nayakas and Sultans

1. Foundation of the Vijayanagara Empire

Founders: Harihara and Bukka in 1336.

Diversity: The empire encompassed different languages and religious traditions.

2. Geopolitical Context

Northern Frontier Rivals: Sultans of the Deccan, Gajapati rulers of Orissa.

Objective: Control of fertile river valleys and overseas trade resources.

Interaction Outcome: Sharing of architectural ideas and techniques.

3. Legacy of Former Dynasties

Cholas: Tamil Nadu. E.g., Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur.

Hoysalas: Karnataka. E.g., Chennakeshava temple at Belur.

Vijayanagara's Contribution: Built upon these traditions, reaching architectural pinnacles.

4. Kings and Traders

Horse Trade: Vital for warfare. Controlled by Arab traders and local "kudirai chettis."

Portuguese Influence (from 1498): West Coast establishment with superior military technology.

Vijayanagara's Markets: Spices, textiles, precious stones; trade symbolized status and wealth.

5. Evolution of the Empire

Dynamics: Power struggles between ruling lineage and military commanders.

Dynasties:

Sangama (till 1485).
Saluvas (till 1503).
Tuluvas (Krishnadeva Raya belonged here).

Krishnadeva Raya's Era: Expansion, consolidation, architectural contributions, and peace.

Post Krishnadeva Raya: Internal strain, the rise of the Aravidu dynasty, shifting alliances with Sultanates.

6. The Battle of Rakshasi-Tangadi (1565)

The Alliance of Sultanates (Bijapur, Ahmadnagar, Golconda) defeated Vijayanagara.

Aftermath: Vijayanagara City was sacked and later abandoned.

7. Rayas and Nayakas

Nayakas: Mobile military chiefs controlling forts.

Amara-nayaka System: Political innovation, possibly inspired by the Delhi Sultanate's iqta system.

Duties: Tax collection, tribute to the king, maintaining military contingents.

Seventeenth Century: Many nayakas established independent kingdoms, leading to the empire's decline.

Map

Vijayanagara The Capital and its Environs

1. City Features

Distinctive: Physical layout and building style unique to Vijayanagara.

2. Water Resources

Location: Natural basin formed by the Tungabhadra River.

Landscape: Granite hills surround the city with streams flowing to the river.

Water Storage: Embankments built to create reservoirs.

Kamalapuram Tank: Major water tank of the city, also supplying the “royal centre”.
Hiriya Canal: Separated the “sacred centre” from the “urban core”.

3. Fortifications and Roads

Fort Walls: Seven lines of fortifications as observed by Abdur Razzaq.

Construction: Wedge-shaped stone blocks without mortar, inner portion packed with earth and rubble.

Agricultural Importance: Fortified areas included agricultural tracts to withstand sieges.

City Entry: Well-guarded gates linked to major roads with distinctive Indo-Islamic architectural features.

City Roads: Traced through gateways, winding through valleys and lined by bazaars.

4. The Urban Core

Residences: Limited archaeological evidence of houses of ordinary people.

Rich Traders: Areas with Chinese porcelain discoveries.
Muslim Quarters: Tombs, mosques resembling the temple mandapas.

Portuguese Observation: The houses of ordinary people were thatched but well-built.

Religious Diversity: Numerous shrines and temples indicate a variety of cults.

Water Sources: Wells, rainwater tanks, and temple tanks.

Map

The Royal Centre

"The Royal Centre of Vijayanagara"

1. Overview

Location: South-western part of the settlement.

Composition: Over 60 temples and around 30 building complexes were identified as palaces.

Significance: The patronage of temples was crucial for rulers to legitimize their authority.

Construction: Temples were made of masonry, while secular buildings had perishable superstructures.

2. The Mahanavami Dibba

Description: Massive platform (11,000 sq. ft base, 40 ft high) supporting a wooden structure.

Relief Carvings: Base adorned with carvings.

Rituals: Celebrations during the Mahanavami festival, showcasing the king's prestige and power.

Ceremonies: Included worship, dances, processions, and presentations to the king.

Doubts: Uncertain if the platform was the ritual center due to spatial constraints.

3. Notable Buildings in the Royal Centre

Lotus Mahal: Named by British travelers; possibly a council chamber.

Hazara Rama Temple: Exclusive for the king and family, with sculpted panels from the Ramayana.

4. Legacy

Destruction: Many structures were destroyed when the city was sacked.

Continuation: The tradition of building palatial structures was upheld by the Nayakas.

The Sacred Centre of Vijayanagara

1. Overview

Location: Northern end of the city on the Tungabhadra's banks.

Significance: The area is associated with several sacred traditions, including the Ramayana and Pampadevi.

2. Significance of Temples

History: Temple building was an old tradition, backed by dynasties like Pallavas, Chalukyas, and Cholas.

Role: Temples were religious, social, cultural, and economic centers.

Rulers' Affiliation: Temples were a means of legitimizing authority; associating with the divine.

Virupaksha & Pampadevi: The choice of the Vijayanagara site is possibly due to these shrines.

3. Temple Architecture Innovations

Royal Portrait Sculpture: Displayed in temples.

King's Visits: Treated as state occasions, accompanied by nayakas.

4. Distinctive Features

Raya Gopurams: Royal gateways that signaled temple presence from a distance.

Mandapas: Pavilions and long pillared corridors around temple shrines.

5. Temples of Note

Virupaksha Temple: Built over centuries; expanded during the Vijayanagara Empire. Features halls for various religious purposes.

Vitthala Temple: Dedicated to Vitthala, a form of Vishnu. Features chariot streets and a unique chariot shrine.

6. Nayakas and Temple Building

Nayakas continued traditions of temple building and fortification.

They built some of the most spectacular gopurams.

Plotting Palaces, Temples and Bazaars

1. Background Information

Initial Surveys: Conducted by Mackenzie.

Sources: Travellers’ accounts and inscriptions.

Preservation: 20th-century efforts by the Archaeological Survey of India and Karnataka Department of Archaeology and Museums.

Recognition: Hampi was identified as a site of national importance in 1976.

2. Documentation Project (1980s)

Objective: Detailed documentation of Vijayanagara's material remains.

Methods: Extensive and intensive surveys using various recording techniques.

Collaboration: Scholars worldwide participated over nearly two decades.

3. Mapping Process

Division: The entire area is divided into 25 squares, each designated by an alphabet letter.

Subdivision: Each primary square is subdivided further into smaller squares, and then further subdivided into even tinier units.

Findings: Thousands of structures documented, from small shrines to grand temples. Traces of roads, paths, and bazaars were also uncovered.

4. Significance of Surveys

Bazaars: Located through remains of pillar bases and platforms, indicating once-thriving markets.

Limitations: Only stone structures survive; wooden elements have vanished.

Reconstructions: Despite the loss of wooden structures, travellers' descriptions help reconstruct the vibrant life of the times.

Map

Questions in Search of Answers

1. Significance of Buildings

Insights: Offer understanding of space organization, usage, construction materials, and techniques.

Military Assessment: Fortifications reveal defense needs and military strategies.

Cultural Spread: Comparisons with other structures show cultural influences and ideas.

2. Symbolism and Perception

Cultural Context: Buildings contain symbols influenced by literature, inscriptions, and traditions.

Public Interaction: Uncertainty about ordinary people's access and interpretation of the royal or sacred centers.

Worker Perspectives: The thoughts of laborers contributing to construction remain largely unknown.

3. Behind the Construction

Decision Making: Rulers decided on construction aspects such as size, material, and style.

Specialized Knowledge: Questions arise about the planners and possessors of architectural expertise.

Labor Force: The origins and backgrounds of masons, stonecutters, and sculptors are intriguing.

Possible Sources: Were workers from neighboring regions, perhaps even war captives?

Wages: Uncertain compensation structures for the workers.

Logistics: Questions about supervision, transportation of materials, and their sources.

4. Pursuit of Answers

Limitations: Merely observing the buildings or their remains doesn't answer all questions.

Future Research: Utilizing diverse sources may provide more insights.

Additional Concepts

"Questions and Insights about Vijayanagara"

1. Buildings and Their Insights

Purpose: Reflect on the organization of space, materials, and techniques.

Fortifications: Indicate defense strategies and military requirements.

Cultural Comparisons: Studying buildings in different locations reveals shared ideas and influences.

2. Symbols and Their Meanings

Embedded Meanings: Buildings carry symbols influenced by literature, inscriptions, and traditions.

Public Perspective: How ordinary people perceive and interact with these structures remains uncertain.

Laborers' View: The sentiments of those who worked on the constructions are largely unknown.

3. Construction Dynamics

Decision Makers: Rulers made major decisions regarding construction.

Specialists: Questions arise about the identities and origins of architectural experts.

Labor Force: Where did the workers come from and what was their compensation?

Logistics: Concerns about supervision, transportation of materials, and sourcing.

4. Unknowns and Research

Limitations: Observing structures doesn't reveal all answers.

Further Studies: Diverse sources may provide deeper insights.

5. Mackenzie and His Contributions

Colin Mackenzie (1754-1821): Renowned as an engineer, surveyor, and cartographer.

Role: Appointed first Surveyor General of India in 1815.

Objective: Understand India's past for better colonial governance.

Vijayanagara: Studying it could provide information about prevailing institutions, laws, and customs.

6. Vijayanagara Marketplace

Vibrancy: Described as "best-provided" with various commodities available in abundance.

Goods: Included rubies, diamonds, emeralds, pearls, grains, fruits, and meats.

Exotic Foods: Descriptions include "sparrows, rats, cats, and lizards."

7. Krishnadeva Raya's Image

Statue: Located on the gopuram of the temple at Chidambaram.

Physical Description (by Paes): Medium height, fair complexion, signs of smallpox on his face.

8. Discovery and Conservation Timeline

1800: Colin Mackenzie visits.

1856: First detailed photographs by Alexander Greenlaw.

1876: J.F. Fleet documents inscriptions.

1902: Conservation starts under John Marshall.

1986: Hampi was declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO.

Keywords Defined:

Gajapati: Literally means "lord of elephants", a ruling lineage in Orissa during the 15th century.

Ashvapati: Translates to "lord of horses" and refers to the Deccan Sultans.

Narapati: Means "lord of men" and refers to the rayas.

Elevation: A vertical view of an object or structure.

Gopuram: A monumental tower, usually ornate, at the entrance of any temple, especially in Southern India.

Dates and Context:

1200-1300: Establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.

1300-1400: Establishment of the Vijayanagara Empire and Bahmani kingdom.

1400-1500: Establishment of the Gajapati kingdom of Orissa and emergence of Sultanates.

1500-1600: Portuguese conquest of Goa and collapse of the Bahmani kingdom.

1800: Colin Mackenzie visits Vijayanagara.

1856: Alexander Greenlaw photographs archaeological remains at Hampi.

1876: J.F. Fleet begins the documentation of inscriptions.

1902: Conservation starts under John Marshall.

1986: Hampi is declared a World Heritage site by UNESCO.

Chapter 8 - Peasants, Zamindars, and the State

Agrarian Society and the Mughal Empire

During 16th and 17th Century

"Rural Society and Mughal Influence in the 16th and 17th Centuries"

1. Rural Population

Demographics: 85% of India's population resided in villages during the 16th and 17th centuries.

2. Agricultural Production

Involvement: Both peasants and landed elites were engaged in farming.

Rights: Both groups claimed rights to a portion of the produce.

Rural Dynamics: Relationships of cooperation, competition, and conflict formed the foundation of rural society.

3. External Influences on Rural Life

Mughal State: A key external entity that largely depended on agricultural production for income.

State Agents: Included revenue assessors, collectors, and record keepers.

Objective: Control rural society to ensure consistent cultivation and tax collection.

4. Integration of Trade and Markets

Crops for Sale: Many agricultural products were intended for trade.

Market Influence: The introduction of trade, money, and markets integrated villages with urban areas.

Peasants and Agricultural Production

"Peasants and Agricultural Production in 17th Century India"

1. Village Life & Peasant Role

Village: Fundamental unit of agrarian society.

Peasant Activities: Seasonal tasks - tilling, sowing, harvesting, and agro-goods production.

2. Landscape & Agrarian Society

Varied Topography: Dry lands, hilly regions, and forests.

Agrarian Diversity: Different regions had varied cultivable capabilities.

3. Sources of Knowledge

Major Source: Chronicles and documents from the Mughal court.

Ain-i Akbari: Key text by Abu'l Fazl that recorded state arrangements for agriculture.

Regional Sources: Revenue records from Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan; East India Company records.

4. Peasants & Land Relations

Terminology: Raiyat, muzarian, kisan, asami.

Types of Peasants:

Khud-kashta: Village residents.
Pahi-kashta: Non-resident cultivators.

Ownership: Lands bought and sold based on individual ownership principle.

5. Irrigation & Technology

Importance: Addressed water needs beyond monsoons.

State Role: Initiated irrigation projects like canals.

Agricultural Tools: Wooden plough, drill, hoe, and narrow iron blade.

6. Crop Production & Variety

Seasonal Cycles: Kharif (autumn) and rabi (spring).

Crop Diversity: Numerous varieties; Bengal had 50 types of rice.

Jins-i Kamil: High-revenue crops like cotton and sugarcane.

New Crops: Maize, tomatoes, potatoes, chillies, pineapple, and papaya were introduced in the 17th century.

The Village Community

"The Village Community in Mughal Society"

1. Village Structure and Social Groups

Individual Ownership: Peasants held their lands individually but were also part of a collective village community.

Community Constituents:

Cultivators: Varied based on caste and roles.

Panchayat: Assembly of village elders.

Headman (muqaddam/mandal): Supervised village affairs.

2. Caste in Rural Areas

Heterogeneity: Cultivators varied widely due to caste distinctions.

Lower Strata: Direct correlation between caste, poverty, and social status.

Intermediate Levels: Some castes, like Ahirs and Gujars, rose in status due to their professions.

3. Village Governance

Panchayat's Role: Upheld caste boundaries, levied fines, and decided on matters of community welfare.

Headman's Role: Supervised village accounts and conducted oversight on villagers' conduct.

Jati Panchayats: Represented specific castes within the village. Had significant influence and arbitrated disputes.

Village Resistance: Panchayat could mediate conflicts. If unsatisfied, peasants might resort to drastic measures like deserting the village.

4. Village Artisans

Artisan-Peasant Overlap: Many groups performed tasks of both artisans and peasants.

Remuneration: Artisans were compensated through a share of the harvest, land allotments, or daily allowances.

Jajmani System: Mutual exchange system between artisans and peasant households.

5. Village Perception

"Little Republic" Myth: Contrary to some British perceptions, villages weren't egalitarian. They had clear power hierarchies, caste distinctions, and gender biases.

Economic Dynamics: Cash nexus developed through village-town trade, and revenue was often assessed and collected in cash.

Women in Agrarian Society

1. Role in Agricultural Production

Collaborative Efforts: Both men and women had distinct roles in the fields. Men handled tasks like tilling and ploughing while women managed sowing, weeding, threshing, and winnowing.

Home and World: Due to the structure of medieval Indian agriculture, women's roles were not just limited to the household. They were actively involved in fieldwork and other outdoor activities.

Cultural Biases: Despite their active role, certain biases persisted. For instance, menstruating women had restricted access to certain tasks and areas.

2. Women in Artisanal Work

Craft Production: Women were instrumental in tasks such as spinning yarn, pottery, and embroidery.

Commercialization Impact: The more a product was commercialized, the higher the demand for women's labor in its production.

3. Socio-Cultural Significance

Child-bearing Role: Women were valued as child bearers in a labor-dependent society.

High Mortality Impact: Frequent deaths due to malnutrition, childbirth, etc., led to bride-price customs and legitimization of remarriage among peasants.

4. Control and Patriarchy

Male Dominance: Households were typically male-headed, leading to strict control over women.

Infidelity and Punishments: Society had strict norms regarding women's fidelity, with severe consequences for suspected infidelity.

5. Petitions and Justice

Seeking Redress: Women often sent petitions to the village panchayat against issues like husbands' infidelity or neglect.

Anonymity in Records: Women's names were typically excluded from records, reflecting societal norms.

6. Property Rights and Landed Gentry

Inheritance: Women, especially among the landed gentry, had the right to inherit property.

Active Participation: Evidence shows women, even widows, actively participating in rural land markets.

Women Zamindars: In places like eighteenth-century Bengal, women held significant zamindari positions.

Forests and Tribes

1. Beyond Settled Villages

Forest Cover: Vast forests, including dense jungles and scrublands, covered a significant portion of India, possibly around 40%.

Definition of Jangli: Forest dwellers were called 'jangli'. The term didn’t imply a lack of civilization but denoted their livelihood from the forest – gathering, hunting, and shifting agriculture.

Seasonal Activities: Forest activities varied by season. For Bhils, spring was for gathering, summer for fishing, monsoon for cultivation, and autumn/winter for hunting.

State's Perception: Forests were seen as hiding places for rebels. Babur mentioned how jungles made people rebellious and evade taxes.

2. Inroads into Forests

State Needs: The state needed elephants for its army, often as part of the tax (peshkash) from forest communities.

Hunting Symbolism: For the Mughal state, hunting symbolized its connection to all subjects. It was also a way for emperors to personally attend to grievances.

Trade & Commerce: Forest products like honey, beeswax, and gum lac were in demand, with gum lac becoming a significant export. Barter systems were common in the trade.

Tribal Transformation: Many tribal chiefs became zamindars or kings, establishing armies and integrating into the larger socio-political landscape.

Wars & Conflicts: Tribal kingdoms in the northeast and other regions often engaged in wars. The Koch kings, for instance, expanded their territories through conquests in the 16th and 17th centuries.

Cultural Influences: Sufi saints (pirs) played a role in introducing Islam to new agricultural communities in forested areas.

The Zamindars

1. Definition and Role

Zamindars: Landed proprietors in Mughal India who did not directly engage in agricultural production but benefited from it.

Privileges: Elevated status due to caste and services (khidmat) provided to the state.

2. Land Ownership

Milkiyat Lands: Personal lands owned by zamindars. They had full rights to sell, bequeath, or mortgage them.

Cultivated primarily for the private use of the zamindars, often utilizing hired or servile labor.

3. Power and Influence

Revenue Collection: Often tasked with collecting revenue on behalf of the state, earning them financial compensation.

Military Resources: Maintained fortresses (qilachas) and armed forces (cavalry, artillery, infantry).

Zamindari Hierarchy: Visualizing rural society as a pyramid, zamindars were at the top. Combination of upper-caste (Brahmana-Rajput) dominance with some representation from intermediate castes and Muslim zamindaris.

4. Expansion and Consolidation

Origin: Some emerged from conquests, but imperial confirmation was typically needed.

Zamindari Consolidation: Involved land colonization, transfer of rights, orders from the state, and purchase. Even "lower" castes occasionally became zamindars.

Territorial Control: Rajputs, Jats, and peasant-pastoralists like the Sadgops expanded their territories.

5. Economic Role

Land Colonization: Played a role in settling cultivators and providing resources for cultivation.

Monetisation: Buying and selling of zamindaris increased cash flow in the countryside.

Market Establishment: Often set up markets (haats) where peasants sold their produce.

6. Relationship with Peasantry

Reciprocity & Patronage: Despite its exploitative nature, some elements of mutual benefit and paternalism existed.

Bhakti Saints' Perspective: Criticized many forms of oppression but didn't particularly portray zamindars as oppressors.

Agrarian Uprisings: Zamindars often allied with peasants against the state in 17th-century agrarian revolts.

Land Revenue System

1. Importance of Land Revenue

Mainstay of the Mughal Empire: Land revenue was the principal source of income for the Mughal state.

Administrative Apparatus: Created to ensure control over agricultural production and collect revenue. This included the office of the diwan who supervised the fiscal system.

2. Assessment and Collection

Two Stages: First was the assessment, and then the actual collection.

Jama: The assessed amount.
Hasil: The collected amount.

Payment Modes: Akbar allowed cultivators to pay either in cash or in kind.

State's Goal: Maximise its revenue claims, but the actual collection was sometimes affected by local conditions.

3. Land Measurement

Purpose: To get information about the extent of agricultural lands and their production.

Cultivated & Cultivable Lands: Both were measured in each province.

Ain's Compilation: During Akbar's rule, the Ain aggregated measurements of such lands.

Continuous Effort: Subsequent emperors, like Aurangzeb in 1665, directed officials to prepare annual records of cultivators in each village.

Challenges: Not all areas, especially forests, could be successfully measured.

Map

The Flow of Silver

1. Asian Empires in the 16th and 17th Centuries

Major Players: Mughal (India), Ming (China), Safavid (Iran), and Ottoman (Turkey).

Achievement: Consolidated power and resources, leading to political stability.

2. Impact of Political Stability

Trade Networks: Vibrant overland trade routes formed from China to the Mediterranean.

European Connection: Voyages of discovery and the opening of the New World expanded Asia's trade, especially India's, with Europe.

3. Expansion of India's Overseas Trade

Geographical Diversity: India’s trade spread across a wider geographical region.

Commodity Composition: Diversification in the types of goods traded.

4. Influx of Silver into India

Reason: Expanding trade required European countries to pay in silver for goods from India.

Benefit for India: India lacked natural silver resources, so the incoming silver was crucial.

Economic Stability: The 16th to 18th centuries saw a stable availability of metal currency, particularly the silver rupee, in India.

5. Expansion in Monetary Transactions

Minting & Circulation: There was an unprecedented expansion in coin minting and money circulation.

State Revenue: The Mughal state benefitted from the ability to collect taxes and revenue in cash.

6. Giovanni Careri's Testimony (c. 1690)

Insight: Provided a detailed account of how silver traveled globally to reach India and highlighted the vast scale of cash and commodity transactions in 17th-century India.

The Ain-i Akbari of Abu’l Fazl Allami

1. Introduction to Ain-i Akbari

Author: Abu’l Fazl Allami

Completion: 1598, after five revisions.

Purpose: Part of the larger project, the Akbar Nama, commissioned by Emperor Akbar.

2. Composition and Structure

Three Books: The first two are historical narratives. The third, Ain-i Akbari, is a compendium of imperial regulations and a gazetteer.

Contents: Details on the court, administration, army, revenue sources, geography, and cultural traditions.

3. Emphasis on Quantitative Information

Jama vs. Hasil: Jama refers to the assessed amount, while Hasil is the collected amount.

Land Measurements: Detailed statistics on the provinces, including geographic, topographic, and economic profiles.

Details on Subas and Sarkars: Includes pargana/mahal, qila, arazi, naqdi, suyurghal, zamindars, and their troops.

4. Authenticity and Verification

Revisions: The manuscript underwent five revisions for accuracy.

Cross-checking: Oral testimonies were verified before inclusion.

5. Limitations of Ain-i Akbari

Errors: Minor arithmetic and transcription errors exist.

Skewed Data: Data was not uniformly collected from all provinces.

Fiscal Data Richness: Detailed financial data, but limited information on prices and wages outside Agra.

6. Historical Significance

Departure from Tradition: Unlike typical chronicles focused on political events, Ain-i Akbari detailed the empire's structure and its people.

Benchmark: Provides vital insights into India in the 17th century.

Value for Historians: Helps in reconstructing the socio-economic fabric of Mughal India.

Additional Concepts

Mughal Empire's Various Aspects

1. Agrarian Mobility

Babur's Observation: Villages and towns in Hindustan could be quickly depopulated and repopulated.

Reasons: No need for digging water courses due to rain-grown crops; abundant population and resources like khas-grass and wood.

2. Irrigation Techniques

Babur's Description: Absence of running water in most of Hindustan.

Methods: Buckets or wheels are used for irrigating young trees.

Variations: Lahore and Dipalpur used a wheel system; Agra and nearby regions used buckets.

3. Tobacco's Introduction

Origin: First arrived in the Deccan.

Spread: Reached northern India in the early 17th century.

Concerns: Jahangir banned it due to addiction fears, but by the end of the 17th century, it became widespread.

4. Demographic Growth

Outcome: Flexible agricultural production led to slow population growth.

Statistics: Increase of about 50 million people between 1600 and 1800.

5. Corrupt Mandals

Misuse: Mandals often manipulated village accounts with patwaris and under-assessed their own land revenue, burdening smaller cultivators.

6. Village Economy

Money Exchange: Jean-Baptiste Tavernier observed that even small villages had a money-changer or Shroff, acting as a banker.

7. Ain-i Akbari's Compilation

Abu’l Fazl's Efforts: Collected records, narratives, and accounts. Consulted various officials, and sagacious men, and used royal records.

Translation: Translated by scholars like Henry Blochmann and H.S. Jarrett.

8. Important Mughal Dates

1526: Babur defeats Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat.

1530-40: First phase of Humayun’s reign.

1540-55: Humayun's exile due to defeat by Sher Shah.

1555-56: Humayun regains territories.

1556-1605: Reign of Akbar.

1605-27: Reign of Jahangir.

1628-58: Reign of Shah Jahan.

1658-1707: Reign of Aurangzeb.

1739: Nadir Shah invades India.

1761: Ahmad Shah Abdali defeats the Marathas.

1765: Diwani of Bengal transferred to the East India Company.

1857: The last Mughal ruler, Bahadur Shah II, was deposed.

9. Key Definitions

Pargana: An administrative subdivision of a Mughal province.

Peshkash: A form of tribute collected by the Mughal state.

Jama: Assessed the amount of land revenue.

Mansabdari System: A military-cum-bureaucratic apparatus responsible for the civil and military affairs of the state.

✅Medieval India - Class 12: Themes in Indian History - Part 2