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✅Modern History - Class 8: Our Past - III Part 1
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✅Modern History - Class 8: Our Past - III Part 1

Chapter 1 - Introduction: How, When and Where
How Important are Dates?
1. The Importance of Dates in History: 1.1. History involves understanding changes over time but isn't solely about memorizing dates. 1.2. Historical events span over time, making it impractical to assign precise dates to many occurrences. 1.3. Traditional history focused on precise dates related to rulers, battles, and politics. 1.4. Modern historical studies encompass various aspects of society, culture, and everyday life, often not tied to specific dates.
2. Criteria for Choosing Significant Dates: 2.1. Dates become significant based on the focus of historical study. 2.2. Changing focus can lead to the importance of new dates. 2.3. British historians emphasized dates related to Governors-General, often sidelining activities of other societal groups.
3. Periodisation in History: 3.1. James Mill's division: Hindu, Muslim, and British periods, which reflects a colonial perspective. 3.2. Problems with traditional periodization: labels like 'ancient', 'medieval', and 'modern' may not accurately reflect Indian history. 3.3. The term 'colonial' is used to describe the period of British rule, focusing on the subjugation and transformation of Indian society.
4. Concept of Colonisation: 4.1. Entails political, economic, social, and cultural changes resulting from the subjugation of one country by another. 4.2. Different classes and groups experienced the impacts of colonialism differently.
How do we know about it?
1. Sources for Colonial Indian History: 1.1 Administrative Records: - The British administration produced extensive official records, believing in the importance of written documents. - These records included instructions, policies, agreements, and investigations. - Administrative institutions had record rooms for preserving documents, leading to the establishment of archives and museums. - Early documents were handwritten by calligraphists; by the mid-nineteenth century, records were printed. 1.2 Surveys: - The British conducted detailed surveys for effective administration. - Surveys included mapping, revenue collection, soil quality, local histories, cropping patterns, etc. - The Census, conducted every ten years from the end of the nineteenth century, recorded detailed demographic data. - Various specialized surveys were also conducted (botanical, zoological, archaeological, anthropological, forest).
2. Limitations of Official Records: 2.1. Official records reflect the perspectives of colonial officials, not the diverse populace of India. 2.2. These records often don't reveal the motivations behind actions or the experiences of common people.
3. Non-official Historical Sources: 3.1. Diaries, pilgrim accounts, autobiographies, and popular booklets offer insights beyond official narratives. 3.2. With the advent of printing, newspapers, public debates, and writings of leaders and reformers became significant. 3.3. However, these sources predominantly represent the literate section of society. 3.4. Understanding the lives of tribals, peasants, and the urban poor requires different, more nuanced efforts.
Additional Concepts
1. Colonial Perspectives and Representations: 1.1 Mapping and Cultural Dominance (Fig. 1): - James Rennel, commissioned by Robert Clive, produced maps of Hindustan to aid British domination. - The imagery suggested that Indians submitted their culture to the British (Britannia) for protection, indicating a biased perspective of willing submission.
1.2 Advertisements and Cultural Change (Fig. 2): - Old advertisements, like the 1922 Lipton tea advertisement, showcase how colonial markets influenced local tastes and associated products with royalty and luxury.
1.3 Glorification of Colonial Rule (Fig. 3): - History books, biographies, and paintings during colonial times often glorified British Governors-General, portraying them as powerful figures, reflecting a one-sided narrative.
2. Colonial Administration and Control: 2.1 Suppressing Mutiny (Reports to the Home Department): - Reports from 1946 show the colonial government's measures to suppress the Royal Indian Navy's mutiny, highlighting strict control and military involvement.
2.2 Institutions of Knowledge (Fig. 4): - Establishments like the National Archives of India were positioned near power centers (Viceregal Palace), emphasizing their importance in the colonial regime.
3. Colonial Interests in Flora and Art (Custard-apple plant):
  • The British established botanical gardens and museums, collecting plant specimens and employing local artists for illustrations, indicating their interest in exploiting natural resources.
4. Mapping and Survey Operations (Fig. 6):
  • The emphasis on scientific instruments in images of surveys in Bengal underlines the British portrayal of their rule as scientific and rational.
5. Biased Representations of 1857 Rebellion:
  • British narratives post-1857 depicted Indian rebels negatively ("Mutinous sepoys share the loot"), showcasing a biased colonial perspective that justified their rule.
6. Newspapers as Historical Sources (Hindustan Times, 1946):
  • Newspapers provide firsthand accounts of events and movements, such as the 1946 police strike in Delhi, offering insights into living conditions and sentiments of the time.
Chapter 2 - From Trade to Territory
The Company Established Power
1. Decline of the Mughal Empire: 1.1 Aurangzeb's Rule: - Aurangzeb, the last potent Mughal ruler, expanded the empire to a vast area of present-day India. - His death in 1707 marked the beginning of the decline of the Mughal Empire.
1.2 Rise of Regional Kingdoms: - Post-Aurangzeb, many Mughal governors (subadars) and large landholders (zamindars) asserted independence, forming regional kingdoms. - This decentralization weakened the unifying power of Delhi, diminishing its status as an effective central authority.
2. Emergence of British Power: 2.1 Initial Presence: - By the mid-eighteenth century, amidst India's political fragmentation, the British emerged as a significant force. - Initially, they arrived as the British East India Company, a small trading entity, with no apparent territorial ambitions.
2.2 Reluctant Conquest: - Despite their original commercial intentions, the British eventually established control over vast Indian territories. - The chapter promises to explore how this transformation from a trading company to a colonial power occurred.
East India Company comes East
1. East India Company's Arrival and Expansion: 1.1 Charter and Competition: - Established in 1600, the East India Company obtained a royal charter from Queen Elizabeth I, granting exclusive rights to trade with the East, eliminating English competitors. - Despite the charter, they faced competition from Portuguese, Dutch, and French traders in Asia, leading to battles and the necessity of fortified posts.
1.2 Commencement of Trade in Bengal: - The first English factory was established in 1651 on the Hugli River, leading to the eventual development of Calcutta. - The Company acquired trading privileges through farman from Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb but faced revenue disputes with local nawabs.
2. Conflicts and the Battle of Plassey: 2.1 Tensions with Bengal Nawabs: - Early eighteenth-century conflicts between the Company and Bengal nawabs escalated, especially after the nawabs asserted more power post-Aurangzeb. - Issues included trade concessions, revenue collection, coin minting rights, and fortification disputes.
2.2 Battle of Plassey (1757): - The Company, apprehensive of Nawab Sirajuddaulah’s power, sought a puppet ruler, leading to the Battle of Plassey. - The Company’s victory, primarily due to internal betrayal within Sirajuddaulah’s army, marked a significant shift in power.
3. Political Maneuvers and Expansion of Power: 3.1 Manipulating Nawabs: - Post-Plassey, the Company manipulated puppet nawabs for trade benefits but faced constant challenges. - The Battle of Buxar (1764) further solidified the Company’s power, leading to the desire to “become nawabs” themselves.
3.2 Acquisition of Diwani: - In 1765, the Company was appointed as the Diwan of Bengal, enabling revenue collection. - This allowed the Company to finance its operations and cease the outflow of gold from Britain.
4. Transformation of Company Officials: 4.1 The Emergence of “Nabobs”: - Company officials, amassing wealth through gifts and corruption, began living luxurious lives akin to nawabs. - Robert Clive was a notable figure, returning to England with significant wealth. - These wealthy officials, known as “nabobs,” were often scorned in British society.
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Company Rules Expand
1. Expansion Strategies of the East India Company: 1.1 Annexation Tactics: - The Company used political, economic, and diplomatic methods for expansion, avoiding direct military confrontation where possible. - Employed Residents in Indian states post-Battle of Buxar (1764) to influence internal affairs and politics.
1.2 Subsidiary Alliance: - Indian rulers disallowed independent armed forces; instead, they paid for “subsidiary forces” for protection by the Company. - Failure to pay resulted in territory annexation as a penalty (e.g., Nawab of Awadh in 1801).
2. Confrontations with Mysore and the Marathas: 2.1 Tipu Sultan of Mysore: - Faced the Company's aggression due to his control over valuable trade and alliance with the French. - Four Anglo-Mysore wars ended with Tipu's death and Mysore's subsidiary alliance.
2.2 War with the Marathas: - After the decline post-Panipat (1761), Marathas faced the Company's aggression in three wars, leading to their defeat and the Company's control over territories south of the Vindhyas.
3. Policy of Paramountcy: 3.1 Introduction and Implementation: - Initiated under Lord Hastings (1813-1823), claiming the Company’s supreme authority over Indian states. - Used to justify annexations or threats for Company interests' protection.
3.2 Resistance to Expansion: - Instances of opposition (e.g., Rani Channamma of Kitoor).
4. North-Western Expansion and Doctrine of Lapse: 4.1 Fear of Russian Invasion: - Expansion into the north-west (Afghanistan, Sind, Punjab) driven by perceived Russian threat.
4.2 Doctrine of Lapse (Under Lord Dalhousie, 1848-1856): - Policy stating a kingdom would “lapse” into Company control if a ruler died without a male heir. - Applied for numerous annexations (e.g., Satara, Sambalpur, Udaipur, Nagpur, Jhansi).
4.3 Annexation of Awadh (1856): - Justified under the pretense of rescuing people from misgovernment; incited local rage and contributed to the 1857 revolt.
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Setting up a New Administration
1. Warren Hastings and Administrative Reforms: 1.1 Background: - Warren Hastings, Governor-General (1773-1785), pivotal in expanding Company power. - Company power extended to Bengal, Bombay, and Madras, organized into Presidencies.
1.2 Justice System Overhaul (from 1772): - Establishment of dual courts in districts: criminal (faujdari adalat) and civil (diwani adalat). - European collectors presided over civil courts, with Indian laws interpreted by Maulvis and Hindu pandits. - Efforts for legal uniformity: compilation of Hindu and Muslim laws for European judges' reference. - Introduction of the Supreme Court under the Regulating Act of 1773; establishment of the Sadar Nizamat Adalat (court of appeal) in Calcutta.
2. Role of the Collector:
  • The central figure in district administration is responsible for revenue collection, law, and order.
  • The emergence of the Collectorate as a power nucleus replaced traditional authority holders.
3. Evolution of the Company Army: 3.1 Pre-Colonial and Early Colonial Military: - Mughal army: Primarily cavalry and infantry, with limited professional foot soldiers. - Eighteenth-century shift: Successor states professionalized peasant soldiers; adopted by the Company for its sepoy army.
3.2 Changes in Warfare and Army Composition: - Post-1820s: Decreased cavalry use due to technological advancements in warfare; increased significance of infantry. - Development of a uniform military culture, emphasizing European-style training and discipline, often clashing with caste and community identities.
3.3 Sepoy Perspectives and the Revolt of 1857: - Sepoys' struggles with new military life disregarding their social and religious sentiments hinted at in the Revolt of 1857 (detailed in Chapter 5).
4. Transformation of the East India Company: 4.1 From Trade to Territory: - The Company's evolution from a commercial entity to a colonial power. - Role of steam technology in facilitating travel and communication, intensifying British presence in India.
4.2 Extent of Rule by 1857: - Direct rule over 63% of the territory and 78% of the population, with substantial indirect influence, placing almost all of India under Company control.
Additional Concept
1. Mughal Emperors Post-Aurangzeb:
  • Symbolic importance persisted despite the lack of powerful rulers.
  • Bahadur Shah Zafar, the last Mughal emperor, was considered the leader during the 1857 revolt but was exiled after the Company suppressed the rebellion.
2. East India Company's Territorial Ambitions:
  • Initially met with suspicion in England.
  • Robert Clive's letter to William Pitt emphasized the potential for profit and control in India, highlighting the shift from trade to political dominance.
3. English Traders' Expansions:
  • Initially small-scale, but their influence expanded significantly over time.
  • Accusations of abuse, including the enslavement of local populations.
4. Robert Clive's Self-Perception:
  • Portrayed himself as moderate despite having immense power and wealth at his disposal post-Plassey.
5. Company's Control Over Indian Princes:
  • Residents effectively held power, forcing rulers into subservience.
  • Any deviation from the Company's interests led to conflicts.
6. Tipu Sultan, the "Tiger of Mysore":
  • Known for bravery and resistance against the British.
  • Possessed a symbolic toy tiger, representing opposition to British rule.
7. British Expansion and Conflicts:
  • Continuous wars and annexations to establish and expand control.
  • Use of strategies like the Doctrine of Lapse to annex territories.
8. Warren Hastings' Trial:
  • Accused of misgoverning Bengal, faced impeachment in England.
  • Edmund Burke's speech highlighted Hastings as a figure of oppression.
9. Military Strategies and Composition:
  • Post-battles, the realization of the need to strengthen the cavalry.
  • Changes in military tactics and weaponry over time.
Chapter 3 - Ruling the Countryside
The East India Company Became Diwan
1. The Company as Diwan:
  • On 12 August 1765, the Company was appointed as the Diwan of Bengal, gaining control over revenue.
  • It faced the challenge of revenue collection and land administration while balancing its role as a trader.
2. Economic Crisis:
  • The Company's high revenue demand and low payment for goods led to the decline of local artisans and agriculture.
  • The 1770 famine killed ten million people in Bengal, highlighting the dire state of the economy.
3. The Permanent Settlement of 1793:
  • Introduced to stabilize revenue collection and encourage agricultural investment.
  • Recognized rajas and taluqdars as zamindars to collect rent.
  • The revenue amount was fixed permanently, and not subject to future increases.
4. Problems with the Permanent Settlement:
  • High fixed revenue led to many zamindars losing their lands.
  • Despite initial difficulties, it eventually benefited Zamindars due to market changes, but the Company saw no gains.
  • Zamindars lacked interest in land improvement, focusing on collecting rent.
  • Peasants suffered due to high rents and insecure land tenure.
5. Changes in Revenue Systems:
  • By the early nineteenth century, the need for a new system was evident due to the Company's financial needs.
a. Mahalwari System: - Introduced by Holt Mackenzie in 1822 in the North Western Provinces. - Focused on the village community with revenue collection entrusted to the village headman. - Revenue demand was subject to periodic revision.
b. Ryotwari System: - Implemented in the South, initially by Captain Alexander Read and later by Thomas Munro. - Settlement was made directly with the cultivators (ryots), and fields were surveyed for revenue assessment.
6. Issues with the New Systems:
  • High revenue demands continued, leading to widespread distress among peasants.
  • The expected transformation of peasants into prosperous farmers did not materialize.
Crops for Europe
1. Crop Production for Europe:
  • The British manipulated Indian agriculture to produce crops like opium, indigo, jute, tea, sugarcane, wheat, cotton, and rice, catering to European needs.
2. Indigo Cultivation:
  • Indigo, a plant used for dyeing cloth, became significant due to the high demand in Europe.
  • Despite the availability of a similar dye from the Woad plant, indigo was preferred for its rich color.
  • The collapse of the indigo supply from the West Indies and America led Britain to turn to India.
3. Expansion of Indigo in India:
  • By 1810, 95% of the indigo imported into Britain was from India.
  • The Company and its officials invested heavily in indigo production, attracting many Europeans to become indigo planters in India.
4. Systems of Indigo Cultivation:
  • Nij system: Planters controlled land and production, using hired labor. However, this system faced issues like:
    • Difficulty in land acquisition and labor mobilization.
    • Conflict with local peasants.
    • High investment in plows and maintenance.
  • Ryoti system: Planters compelled ryots (peasants) to cultivate indigo through contracts and cash advances, leading to issues like:
    • Endless cycles of debt for the ryots.
    • Low prices for the indigo they produced.
    • Exhaustion of soil fertility, affecting subsequent crops.
5. Impact on Peasants:
  • The ryoti system's harshness led to widespread distress among peasants.
  • Indigo cultivation often took precedence over food crops, leading to long-term agricultural and socio-economic issues.
The “Blue Rebellion” and After
1. The Blue Rebellion (1859):
  • Indigo farmers in Bengal revolted against oppressive cultivation practices.
  • The rebellion was marked by non-payment of rents and attacks on indigo factories.
  • Women participated in household items, and social boycotts were imposed on those working for the planters.
2. Causes of the Rebellion:
  • Oppression alone doesn't incite rebellion; support and timing are crucial.
  • Local zamindars and village headmen backed the ryots, resenting the planters' power.
  • Post-1857, the ryots believed the British government would empathize with their struggle against the planters.
3. Government and Intellectual Response:
  • The Lieutenant Governor's visit and Ashley Eden's notice were misconstrued as government support for the ryots.
  • Calcutta intellectuals highlighted the ryots' plight, increasing public scrutiny and pressure on the government.
  • The government intervened with the military and established the Indigo Commission.
4. Indigo Commission Findings:
  • Identified planters' culpability and acknowledged the unprofitability of indigo cultivation for ryots.
  • Allowed ryots to fulfill existing contracts but permitted them to refuse future indigo production.
5. Post-Rebellion Scenario:
  • Indigo production in Bengal collapsed but persisted in Bihar.
  • The discovery of synthetic dyes later impacted the indigo business.
  • The Champaran movement, initiated by Mahatma Gandhi in 1917, symbolized a continued struggle against indigo planters.
Additional Concepts
1. Key Figures and Terms: 1.1. Robert Clive: Accepted the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa in 1765. 1.2. Charles Cornwallis: Governor-General during the introduction of the Permanent Settlement. 1.3. Thomas Munro: Governor of Madras, associated with the ryotwari system (1819-26). 1.4. Mahal: A revenue estate, potentially comprising several villages. 1.5. Bigha: A land measurement unit, standardized by the British in Bengal to approximately one-third of an acre. 1.6. Plantation: Large farms, typically involving forced labor and cash crops like indigo. 1.7. Slave: An individual owned and compelled to work for another person.
2. Indigo Production and Resistance: 2.1. Process of Indigo Production: - Involved multiple stages from harvesting the plant to processing it in factories with several vats for different functions. - Labor-intensive, with workers often enduring harsh conditions. 2.2. Resistance and Rebellion: - Indigo cultivation was deeply unpopular, leading to the famous "Blue Rebellion." - Songs and cultural expressions were mediums for solidarity and resistance among the people. - Testimonies like Hadji Mulla's highlighted the oppressive conditions and the reluctance to continue indigo cultivation.
3. The Global Context: 3.1. Indigo and Slavery: - Indigo plantations were part of a broader global network, often relying on slave labor. - The revolt in St Domingue and the subsequent abolition of slavery had significant implications for the global indigo trade.
4. Art and Indigo: 4.1. Cultural Representations: - Indigo was not just a crop but also a dye that influenced art and textile patterns across cultures. - Works like Kalamkari prints in India and Morris prints in England were part of this larger cultural exchange.
Chapter 4 - Tribals, Dikus, and the Vision of a Golden Age
Birsa Munda
1. Introduction to Birsa Munda: 1.1. Birsa's Emergence: - Appeared in Chottanagpur (Jharkhand) in 1895, claimed to have divine powers and a divine mission. - Known for his miraculous abilities, such as curing diseases and multiplying grains. 1.2. Followers: - Initially from the Munda tribal group but eventually garnered support from other tribal groups like Santhals and Oraons. - Viewed him as a savior (bhagwan) sent to alleviate their suffering and resolve their problems.
2. Context of Birsa's Uprising: 2.1. Tribal Discontent: - Tribals were experiencing significant changes under British rule, disrupting their traditional ways of life. - Livelihoods were threatened, and religious practices seemed to be in peril. 2.2. Dikus (Outsiders): - Birsa aimed to liberate his people from the oppression of "dikus," a term used to describe outsiders. - The exact identity and role of these "dikus" are to be explored further.
3. Tribal Societies: 3.1. Distinct Cultural Practices: - Tribes had customs and rituals distinct from Brahminical prescriptions. - Lacked sharp social divisions characteristic of caste societies, emphasizing common kinship ties. 3.2. Internal Differences: - Despite a sense of commonality, economic and social differences existed within tribal groups.
4. Questions for Exploration: 4.1. Issues to Investigate: - Understanding the specific problems Birsa sought to address. - Identifying the "dikus" and how they were perceived to enslave the tribal people. - Examining the changes in tribal lives under British rule.
How did Tribal Groups Live?
1. Tribal Lifestyle and Economic Activities in the Nineteenth Century: 1.1. Jhum Cultivators: - Practiced shifting cultivation, mainly in forests. - Involved cutting treetops, burning vegetation, using ash as fertilizer, and broadcasting seeds. - Dependent on forest and land mobility. 1.2. Hunters and Gatherers: - Dependent on forests for hunting animals and gathering produce. - Examples include the Khonds of Orissa. - Utilized forest produce for food, medicine, and trade. - Sometimes worked as laborers or did odd jobs for non-tribal people. 1.3. Reluctance to Work for Others: - Some tribes, like the Baigas, preferred forest produce over laboring, considering it beneath their dignity. 1.4. Dependence on Market and Moneylenders: - Engaged in trade and took loans, often leading to debt and poverty. - Viewed moneylenders and traders as sources of misery. 1.5. Pastoralists: - Moved with herds according to seasons. - Examples include the Van Gujjars, Labadis, Gaddis, and Bakarwals. 1.6. Settled Cultivators: - Some tribal groups transitioned to settled cultivation. - Used ploughs and obtained land rights. - Land was often collectively owned by clans, but internal power disparities existed. - British perceived settled tribes as more "civilized."
2. British Perceptions of Tribal Groups: 2.1. Civilisation Hierarchy: - Settled tribal groups are seen as more civilized. - Hunter-gatherers and shifting cultivators were viewed as wild and needing civilization.
Map
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How did Colonial rule affect Tribal Lives?
1. Impact of Colonial Rule on Tribal Lives: 1.1. Changes in Tribal Chiefs' Powers: - Lost administrative power and traditional authority. - Retained land titles but had to pay tribute and enforce British rules.
1.2. Shifting Cultivators and British Policies: - The British preferred settled peasants for easier control and revenue. - Introduced land settlements: measured land, fixed rights, and revenue. - Jhum cultivators suffered under plough cultivation; and continued traditional practices amidst protests.
1.3. Forest Laws: - Forests declared state property; restrictions on movement, hunting, and cultivation. - Creation of Reserved Forests; tribal activities severely restricted. - Forced migration of tribals for livelihood; forest villages established for cheap labor. - Tribal resistance through rebellion and forest satyagraha.
1.4. Issues with Trade and Moneylending: - Increased presence of traders and moneylenders exploiting tribals. - Underpayment for goods (e.g., silk cocoon case); middlemen reaped profits. - Tribal discontent with the market and traders.
1.5. Tribal Workforce in New Industries: - Recruitment in tea plantations and coal mines with low wages and poor conditions. - Restricted from returning home; exploitation by contractors.
2. Overall Consequences: 2.1. Loss of Traditional Authority and Livelihood: - Tribal chiefs lost power; traditional practices threatened. 2.2. Economic Exploitation and Discontent: - Unfair trade practices, low wages, and exploitation led to tribal unrest.
 
A Closer Look
1. Tribal Rebellions:
  • Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, tribal groups rebelled against colonial laws, taxes, and exploitation.
  • Key uprisings: Kols (1831-32), Santhals (1855), Bastar (1910), Warli (1940).
2. Birsa Munda: 2.1. Early Life: - Born mid-1870s, experienced poverty, influenced by past Munda uprisings. - Exposure to Christian missionaries and Vaishnav preachings shaped his worldview.
2.2. Ideology and Movement: - Advocated for societal reform (anti-alcohol, cleanliness, no witchcraft). - Opposed external influences (missionaries, Hindu landlords). - Envisioned a return to a golden age ("satyug") of honest living and self-sufficiency.
2.3. Political Aims: - Sought to establish Munda Raj, expelling missionaries, moneylenders, landlords, and the government. - Identified these forces as responsible for the Mundas' suffering.
2.4. British Response: - Arrested and imprisoned Birsa in 1895; movement continued post-release. - Used traditional symbols and narratives to mobilize people against "Ravana" (dikus/Europeans). - Attacks on symbols of external power; white flag symbolized Birsa Raj.
2.5. Movement's End and Impact: - Birsa's death in 1900 led to the movement's decline. - Resulted in laws protecting tribal lands from dikus. - Demonstrated tribal capacity for protest and resistance under colonial rule.
 
Additional Concepts
1. Societal Structures and Roles:
  • Different societies have unique perceptions of work and time, particularly evident among shifting cultivators and hunters.
  • Tasks and schedules were often gender-specific and followed a seasonal calendar.
2. Tribal Life and Customs: 2.1. Seasonal Activities (Based on Verrier Elwin's observations): - Chait: Women cleared reaped fields; men hunted and cut trees. - Baisakh: Forests were burnt for new fields; hunting continued. - Jeth to Bhadon: Sowing and cultivation period. - Kuar to Aghan: Various crops ripened; harvest commenced. - Pus: Time for social activities like dances and marriages. - Magh: Shift to new areas; reliance on hunting-gathering.
2.2. Shifting Cultivation ("Bewar"): - Followed a cyclical pattern, with the second year offering more time for hunting. - By the third year, the diet was supplemented by forest products due to reduced crop variety.
3. British Rule's Impact on Tribals:
  • Poems and songs from the period reflect the tribals' struggles under British rule, highlighting oppressive taxation and relentless work.
4. Hardships of Tribal Workers:
  • In mining: Harsh conditions led to high mortality rates.
  • In agriculture: Tribals faced physical and emotional toll, as depicted in their songs.
5. Images Depicting Tribal Life:
  • Various photographs (Figs. 1-10) show aspects of tribal life, including market visits, home and tool construction, cultivation practices, weaving, and mining.
 
Chapter 5 - When People Rebel: 1857 and After
Policies and the People
1. Effects of Colonial Policies:
  • Different groups (e.g., kings, queens, peasants, landlords, tribals, soldiers) were impacted differently by East India Company's policies.
  • Resistance was common against policies perceived as harmful or against community interests.
2. Diminishing Powers of Nawabs and Rajas: 2.1. Loss of Authority: From the mid-18th century onwards, the power and authority of nawabs and rajas eroded. The company's residents in courts curtailed rulers' freedom, disbanded armed forces, and annexed revenues and territories. 2.2. Failed Negotiations: - Rani Lakshmibai and Nana Saheb's pleas for rights and pensions were disregarded by the Company. 2.3. Annexation of Awadh (1856): - Under the pretext of misgovernance, leading to direct British control.
3. End of Mughal Rule:
  • The Mughal king's name was removed from coins; Bahadur Shah Zafar to be last recognized Mughal king.
4. Discontent among Peasants and Sepoys: 4.1. High Taxes and Rigid Collection: - Led to widespread resentment; peasants were indebted and dispossessed. 4.2. Grievances of Sepoys: - Dissatisfaction over pay, service conditions, and religious insensitivity (e.g., overseas travel). A new law in 1856 mandating overseas service exacerbated discontent. 4.3. Spread of Discontent: - Sepoys, often from peasant families, echoed the anger from the countryside.
5. British Reforms and Indian Responses: 5.1. Societal Reforms: - Laws against sati, promotion of widow remarriage, and English education. - Enhanced missionary rights post-1830; law facilitating conversion to Christianity (1850). 5.2. Perceived Cultural Invasion: - Growing perception among Indians of British intent to destroy traditional religion, customs, and lifestyle. 5.3. Emergence of Reformers: - Some Indians advocated for change in social practices.
A Popular Rebellion: Mutiny
1. Overview of the 1857 Rebellion:
  • Not just a military mutiny but a popular uprising against British rule.
  • Regarded as the biggest armed resistance to colonialism in the 19th century globally.
2. Outbreak and Spread: 2.1. Mangal Pandey's Execution (8 April 1857): - Triggered widespread anger among sepoys. 2.2. Meerut Incident (9-10 May 1857): - Sepoys refused new cartridges and faced imprisonment; fellow sepoys rebelled, and marched to Delhi. 2.3. Bahadur Shah Zafar's Proclamation: - Reluctantly accepted leadership of the rebellion, and urged unity against the British. 2.4. Spread of Rebellion: - News of British defeat in Delhi sparked mutinies and popular uprisings across regions.
3. Key Figures and Centers of Rebellion: 3.1. Nana Saheb: - Expelled British from Kanpur, and declared himself Peshwa. 3.2. Birjis Qadr and Begum Hazrat Mahal: - Led the uprising in Lucknow, and acknowledged Bahadur Shah Zafar's suzerainty. 3.3. Rani Lakshmibai and Tantia Tope: - Fought against the British in Jhansi. 3.4. Rani Avantibai Lodhi: - Led an army against the British in the Mandla region.
4. British Situation and Popular Support: 4.1. Initial British Defeats: - Led to the perception of their power collapsing, encouraged more people to join the rebellion. 4.2. Widespread Rebellion in Awadh: - Every village resisted the British; zamindars opposed them. 4.3. Emergence of New Leaders: - Figures like Ahmadullah Shah, Bakht Khan, and Kunwar Singh inspired and led the masses.
5. Importance of the Rebellion:
  • Unified people from different backgrounds against a common enemy, the British.
  • Highlighted the potential for a collective struggle for freedom.
The Company Fights Back
1. The Company's Counterattack:
  • Reacted strongly to the 1857 rebellion, mobilizing resources and enacting laws for easy conviction of rebels.
2. Major Recaptures and Events: 2.1. Recapture of Delhi (September 1857): - Key victory for the British; Bahadur Shah Zafar was tried and exiled to Rangoon, where he died in 1862. 2.2. Continued Resistance: - Despite recapture of key locations, resistance against the British continued for two more years. 2.3. Capture of Lucknow (March 1858): - Another significant win for the British forces. 2.4. Defeat of Iconic Figures: - Rani Lakshmibai and Rani Avantibai faced defeat and death in 1858. - Tantia Tope fought guerrilla warfare until his capture and execution in April 1859.
3. Aftermath of the Rebellion: 3.1. Desertions and Diminished Rebellion: - British victories led to decreased morale and increased desertions among rebels. 3.2. British Strategies to Regain Control: - Announced rewards for loyalty and reassured rebels of their land rights upon surrender, provided they hadn't killed Europeans. 3.3. Punitive Actions: - Hundreds involved in the uprising, including sepoys, rebels, and royal figures, were tried and executed.
4. Significance:
  • The events marked the end of the East India Company's rule, leading to the direct control of India by the British Crown.
The Aftermath
1. Changes Post-1857 Rebellion:
  • The British reassessed policies following the rebellion, leading to significant changes in governance and military organization.
2. Political Restructuring: 2.1. End of East India Company’s Rule (1858): - The British Crown assumed control over India, ending the East India Company’s governance. 2.2. Introduction of the Secretary of State: - Oversaw Indian affairs; advised by the newly formed India Council. 2.3. Governor-General becomes Viceroy: - Represented the Crown directly, emphasizing the colonial nature of Indian governance.
3. Relations with Princely States: 3.1. Policy of No Annexation: - Ruling chiefs assured of territorial integrity; could pass on kingdoms to heirs, including adopted sons. 3.2. Subordination to the British Crown: - Indian rulers had to acknowledge the Queen as Sovereign Paramount.
4. Military Reorganization: 4.1. Composition of the Army: - Reduced Indian soldiers; increased European troops. 4.2. Change in Recruitment Strategy: - Preference for Gurkhas, Sikhs, and Pathans over soldiers from Awadh, Bihar, central India, and south India.
5. Social Policies and Reactions: 5.1. Treatment of Muslims: - Widespread confiscation of land and property; general suspicion due to perceived role in rebellion. 5.2. Respect for Local Customs: - The British pledged to honor the religious and social practices of the Indian people. 5.3. Security for Landlords and Zamindars: - Policies enacted to give them secure rights over their lands.
6. Beginning of a New Era:
  • Post-1857 marked a significant shift in British policies, from direct control to attempts at conciliatory governance.
Map
notion image
Additional Concepts
1. Overview of Events and Perspectives:
  • Various accounts and visuals depict the intensity and spread of the 1857 revolt, highlighting the roles of sepoys, peasants, and leaders in the rebellion against British rule.
2. Accounts from the Period: 2.1. Vishnubhatt Godse’s Account: - Details about a rumored list of "eighty-four rules" by the British, potentially affecting religious practices, and inciting unrest among rulers and populace. 2.2. Subedar Sitaram Pande’s Memoirs: - Insights into the distrust among sepoys due to the annexation of Oudh and the spread of rumors, especially concerning the new rifle cartridges.
3. Visual Representations:
  • Paintings and stamps commemorating key figures and events of the revolt, such as Mangal Pandey, Rani Laxmibai, Bahadur Shah Zafar, and significant battles.
4. The Khurda Uprising (1817) – A Precursor to 1857: 4.1. Background: - Occurred in Khurda, Orissa, stemming from discontent with British policies, including land tenure changes, revenue increases, and insensitive administrative measures. 4.2. Causes: - Discontent due to the introduction of new currency, increased prices, the introduction of salt monopoly, and the arrival of absentee landlords from Bengal. 4.3. Outbreak and Suppression: - Led by Buxi Jagabandhu, the uprising began on 29 March 1817; despite initial successes, it was largely contained by May 1817. 4.4. Aftermath: - Post-uprising, the British adopted more lenient policies, including price reductions, administrative reforms, and restoration of lands to previous owners.
5. Residency in Lucknow:
  • A significant site of the 1857 revolt, where a prolonged siege occurred, and which now stands as a historical monument bearing the marks of the rebellion.
Chapter 6 - Civilizing the “Native”, Educating the “Nation”
Overview
1. Introduction:
  • The chapter explores the impact of British rule on various sectors of Indian society, focusing specifically on the cultural and educational implications for Indian students.
2. British Cultural Mission: 2.1. Objectives: - Beyond political and economic control, the British aimed to "civilize" the natives, intending to alter local customs and values. 2.2. Challenges: - Determining the specific changes to introduce and the means of educating and "civilizing" Indians presented complex issues, without straightforward solutions.
3. Debates and Deliberations:
  • The appropriate strategies for transforming Indians into "good subjects," as per British standards, remained a topic of discussion and debate over several decades.
How The British Saw Education
1. British Perspectives on Education: 1.1. Orientalism: - William Jones, a linguist and judge, and others like Henry Thomas Colebrooke, initiated the study of India's ancient texts, believing that understanding these was key to ruling India effectively. - They established the Asiatic Society of Bengal, promoting the study of Indian languages, laws, and philosophy. - This group believed that by learning from Indian culture, the British could both govern effectively and help Indians rediscover their past. - Institutions were established to study Indian languages and texts, like the Calcutta Madrasa and the Hindu College in Benaras. 1.2. Criticism of Orientalism: - Early 19th century: Officials like James Mill criticized Orientalism, considering Eastern knowledge to be inferior and urging the promotion of Western science and literature instead. - Thomas Babington Macaulay was particularly vocal, advocating the introduction of English education to civilize the Indians. - His ideas led to the English Education Act of 1835, making English the medium of instruction and ceasing the promotion of Oriental institutions.
2. Wood's Despatch (1854):
  • Sent by Charles Wood, it outlined the new educational policy in India, emphasizing the practical benefits of European learning.
  • Economic Benefits:
    • The belief was that education in European ways would increase demand for British goods and enhance trade and commerce.
  • Moral Improvement:
    • European learning was considered superior in instilling modern values and moral virtues and in training individuals for administrative tasks.
  • Post-Despatch, education departments were established, universities were opened in major cities, and school education underwent significant changes.
What Happened to the Local Schools?
1. Pre-British Education and Pathshalas: 1.1. William Adam's Report (1830s): - Scottish missionary, reported on vernacular schools in Bengal and Bihar. - Over 1 lakh pathshalas with more than 20 lakh students. - Schools are often established by wealthy individuals, local communities, or gurus (teachers). 1.2. Characteristics of Pathshalas: - No formal fees, books, infrastructure, or exams. - Flexible system: classes are sometimes held outdoors or in the guru's home. - Fee-based on parental income; rich paid more. - Oral teaching, with curriculum adjusted to students' needs. - No separation by grade; students of different levels learned together. - Suited to local needs, e.g., no classes during harvest time.
2. British Intervention in Education: 2.1. Pre-1854: - Focus on higher education; minimal interference in pathshalas. 2.2. Post-1854 Changes: - Aim: Improve vernacular education by imposing order and routines. - Measures: - Appointment of government pandits to oversee multiple schools. - Introduction of periodic reports, regular timetables, and textbook-based teaching. - Implementation of annual exams. - Mandated student fees, fixed seating, regular attendance, and new disciplinary rules. 2.3. Consequences: - Pathshalas conforming to new rules received government grants. - Independent gurus struggled to compete with regulated pathshalas. The new system's rigidity excluded poor students, especially during harvest time.
The National Education Agenda
1. Indian Thinkers on Education: 1.1. Early Perspectives: - Indians, impressed by European progress, advocated for more schools and Western-style education. - Others, like Gandhi and Tagore, critiqued the Western education system.
2. Mahatma Gandhi's Views: 2.1. Critique of Colonial Education: - Created a sense of inferiority among Indians. - Destroyed pride in Indian culture. - Made Indians admire British rule. 2.2. Advocacy for Indian Languages: - English education distanced Indians from their culture. - Advocated education in Indian languages. 2.3. Focus on Holistic Education: - Emphasized working with hands and practical knowledge. - Literacy is not the sole goal; overall development is crucial.
3. Rabindranath Tagore's Vision: 3.1. Santiniketan: - Established in 1901 as a place for creative, natural learning. - Inspired by Tagore's own negative schooling experiences. 3.2. Child-centric Education: - Emphasized creativity, freedom, and self-learning. - The critiqued rigid discipline of British schooling. 3.3. Harmony with Nature: - School in natural surroundings to foster creativity. - Combined teaching of science, art, music, and dance.
4. Debates on National Education: 4.1. Diverse Perspectives: - Some advocated adapting the British system to the Indian context. - Others sought an entirely new system reflecting true Indian identity. 4.2. Continued Debates: - Discussions on what constituted "national education" persisted post-independence.
Additional Concepts
1. Key Figures and Concepts: 1.1. Linguists and Orientalists: - Individuals like William Jones and Henry Thomas Colebrooke studied Asian languages and cultures. - They established institutions like the Calcutta Madrasa to promote Oriental learning as a foundation for British rule. 1.2. Opposition to Oriental Learning: - Figures like Thomas Babington Macaulay emphasized teaching English and Western knowledge, considering Oriental learning inferior.
2. Missionary Education and Moral Education: 2.1. Missionary Activities: - Despite initial opposition, missionaries established schools across India, promoting Christian education to improve morality. - Institutions like Serampore College were significant in these efforts. 2.2. British Caution: - Post-1857, the British were wary of supporting missionary education that might offend local customs and provoke a backlash.
3. Indigenous Education Systems: 3.1. Village Pathshalas: - Traditional, flexible education systems catering to local needs. - No strict schedules, allowing even peasant children to attend.
4. National Education Ideas: 4.1. Aurobindo Ghose's Vision: - Education should foster a sense of nationality, be in vernacular languages, incorporate modern science, and provide employable skills. 4.2. Mahatma Gandhi's Philosophy: - Education is more than literacy; it should develop body, mind, and spirit. - Advocated teaching useful handicrafts scientifically, not just mechanically. 4.3. Rabindranath Tagore's Santiniketan: - Emphasized creative, natural learning in a harmonious environment. - Schools should be places of joy, creativity, and freedom.
5. Education for Girls: 5.1. Missionary Schools: - By the mid-19th century, missionaries and Indian reform organizations began establishing schools for girls.
Chapter 7 - Women, Caste, and Reform
Women's Lives: Before and Now
1. Women's Rights and Social Practices: 1.1. Contemporary Scenario: The majority of middle-class girls now receive education and have career opportunities. - Legal adulthood required for marriage; freedom to choose partners; widows can remarry. - Voting rights for all women, though practical access may vary. 1.2. Situation Two Centuries Ago: - Early-age marriages were common. - Polygamy was practiced by Hindu and Muslim men. - The concept of "sati" was prevalent, with societal praise for women who practiced it. - Severe restrictions on women's property rights and negligible access to education. - Prevailing superstition: educating women would lead to widowhood.
2. Caste-based Social Structure: 2.1. Hierarchy: - Society was stratified: Brahmans and Kshatriyas ("upper castes"), followed by Vaishyas (traders, moneylenders), Shudras (peasants, artisans), and the "untouchables." 2.2. Discrimination: - "Untouchables" faced severe restrictions: no entry to temples, no access to common wells, considered inferior.
3. Evolution of Social Norms: 3.1. Change Over Time: - The 19th and 20th centuries saw gradual changes in these norms and perceptions.
A New Step Taken
1. Emergence of Social Reform: 1.1. Communication Revolution: The introduction of print media in the 19th century spurred public debate. - Books, newspapers, and pamphlets made information accessible, encouraging discussions on social issues. 1.2. Prominent Reformers: - Raja Rammohun Roy, founder of Brahmo Sabha, advocated for women's rights and Western education. - Reformers sought change through persuasion and reinterpreting religious texts.
2. Key Social Reforms: 2.1. Abolition of Sati: - Rammohun Roy campaigned against sati, leading to its ban in 1829. 2.2. Widow Remarriage: - Reformers like Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar promoted widow remarriage, leading to the Widow Remarriage Act of 1856. - Other supporters included Veerasalingam Pantulu, Swami Dayanand Saraswati (Arya Samaj), but societal acceptance was minimal.
3. Women's Education: 3.1. Initial Resistance: - Early schools for girls faced opposition; women's education was largely home-based. 3.2. Progressive Efforts: - Reformers like Jyotirao Phule and organizations like Arya Samaj established girls' schools. - Muslim reformers promoted women's education, with pioneers like the Begums of Bhopal and Begum Rokeya Sakhawat Hossain. 3.3. Women in Literature and Activism: - Women began writing and publishing works, promoting education, and founding institutions. - Prominent figures included Tarabai Shinde and Pandita Ramabai.
4. Political Participation and Nationalism: 4.1. Women in Politics: The early 20th century saw women forming political groups, advocating for suffrage and health/education reforms. 4.2. Nationalist Movement: - Leaders like Nehru and Bose supported women's rights. - Promises of universal suffrage post-independence, with an interim focus on anti-British struggle.
Caste and Social Reform
1. Early Efforts Against Caste Discrimination: 1.1. Initial Movements: - Rammohun Roy, Prarthana Samaj, and Paramhans Mandali criticized caste inequalities. - Reformers, mainly from upper castes, challenged caste norms through secret meetings and public discourses. 1.2. Education and Opportunities: - Christian missionaries educated tribal and lower-caste children. - Urbanization and industrialization created job opportunities, attracting lower-caste individuals seeking escape from rural caste prejudices.
2. Rising Voices Against Caste Inequalities: 2.1. New Leaders and Movements: - Leaders from non-Brahman castes, like Ghasidas, Haridas Thakur, and Shri Narayana Guru, initiated movements promoting social equality. - They advocated changing practices that invoked upper-caste contempt and encouraged self-esteem among subordinate castes. 2.2. Jyotirao Phule and 'Gulamgiri': - Phule challenged Brahman's superiority claims and empathized with the plight of lower castes and women. - He suggested Shudras and Ati Shudras unite against caste discrimination and dedicated "Gulamgiri" to American abolitionists.
3. Twentieth-Century Reforms and Reactions: 3.1. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar's Contributions: - Ambedkar, from the Mahar community, experienced caste prejudices firsthand. - He led temple entry movements to highlight caste-based injustices and was pivotal in the fight for equality. 3.2. Non-Brahman Movement and Periyar: - Initiated by educated, influential non-Brahmans challenging Brahmanical power. - Periyar, after facing caste prejudices, started the Self Respect Movement, criticizing religious sanctions of social inequalities. 3.3. Opposition and Continued Struggle: - Reforms provoked counter-movements like Sanatan Dharma Sabhas, aimed at preserving caste hierarchies. - Debates over caste disparities persisted post-colonial era, continuing into contemporary times.
Additional Concepts
1. Sati and Early Reform Movements: 1.1. European Perspectives: - Sati is depicted as Eastern barbarism by European artists (Fig. 1). 1.2. Rammohun Roy's Advocacy (Fig. 2): - Opposed Sati, highlighting women's lack of educational opportunities rather than inherent inferiority.
2. Rituals and Superstitions: 2.1. Hook Swinging Festival (Fig. 3): - Criticized by Europeans; devotees endured suffering as worship. 2.2. Swami Dayanand Saraswati's Reforms (Fig. 4): - Founded Arya Samaj in 1875, reforming Hinduism.
3. Education and Women's Rights: 3.1. Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar (Fig. 5) and Girls' Education (Fig. 6): - Advocated for education equality for girls. 3.2. Pandita Ramabai's Advocacy (Fig. 7): - Criticized the ill-treatment of widows.
4. Child Marriage and Labor Issues: 4.1. Child Marriage Restraint Act (1929): - Set minimum ages for marriage (Fig. 8). 4.2. Coolie Ship Laborers (Fig. 9): - Low-caste workers faced hard labor in foreign lands.
5. Caste Prejudices and Profits: 5.1. Leatherworkers' Social Stigma and Profit (Fig. 10): - High demand during WWI led to significant profits despite social contempt. 5.2. Educational Discrimination (Fig. 11): - Untouchables faced exclusion even in government schools.
6. Reforms and Criticism of Nationalism: 6.1. Jyotirao Phule's Critique (Fig. 13): - Criticized upper-caste nationalism, advocating for lower-caste rights. 6.2. Ambedkar's Human Rights Focus (Fig. 14): - Advocated for equality and anti-casteism.
7. Periyar and Women's Rights: 7.1. Periyar's Critique of Patriarchy (Fig. 15): - Criticized the subjugation of women and caste-driven social norms.
8. Religious and Educational Reform Movements: 8.1. Brahmo Samaj (Fig. 16): - Prohibited idolatry, promoted Upanishads, and refrained from criticizing other religions. 8.2. Young Bengal Movement (Fig. 17): - Encouraged questioning authority and promoted women's rights. 8.3. Ramakrishna Mission and Swami Vivekananda (Fig. 18): - Emphasized service and selfless action, combined with spiritual teachings. 8.4. Prarthana Samaj: - Worked for social reforms like the abolition of caste distinctions and promotion of women's education. 8.5. Veda Samaj: - Promoted widow remarriage, and women's education, and condemned superstitious rituals. 8.6. Aligarh Movement (Fig. 19): - Established by Sayyid Ahmed Khan, it modernized education for Muslims. 8.7. Singh Sabha Movement (Fig. 20): - Aimed to rid Sikhism of superstitions and caste distinctions, and promoted education.
 
Chapter 8 - The Making of the National Movement: 1870s - 1947
The Emergence of Nationalism
1. Emergence of Nationalism: 1.1. Concept of India: - India for all, irrespective of class, color, caste, creed, language, or gender. - British control over resources and lives was seen as a barrier to Indian sovereignty.
2. Early Political Associations (Post-1850): 2.1. Formation and Goals: - Led by English-educated professionals; major ones included Poona Sarvajanik Sabha, Indian Association, Madras Mahajan Sabha, Bombay Presidency Association, and Indian National Congress. - Aimed for the sovereignty of the people; a modern consciousness and key feature of nationalism.
3. Dissatisfaction with British Rule (1870s-1880s): 3.1. Controversial Acts and Bills: - The Arms Act (1878), Vernacular Press Act (1878), and Ilbert Bill controversy (1883) highlighted racial attitudes and control.
4. Indian National Congress (Established 1885): 4.1. Early Leadership: - Included Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta, Badruddin Tyabji, W.C. Bonnerji, Surendranath Banerji, etc. - A.O. Hume, a retired British official, played a significant role.
5. Moderate Phase of Congress (First 20 Years): 5.1. Demands and Objectives: - A greater voice for Indians in government and administration, more representative Legislative Councils, Indianisation of administration, separation of judiciary from the executive, repeal of Arms Act, freedom of speech. - Raised economic issues; British rule led to poverty, famines, and economic ruin. - Despite elite composition, Congress raised issues affecting various groups.
6. Political Strategies: 6.1. Public Awareness and British Ideals: - Moderates used newspapers, articles, and speeches to make the public and the British government aware of Indian sentiments.
7. Rise of Radical Leaders (1890s): 7.1. Criticisms and New Objectives: - Leaders like Bepin Chandra Pal, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, and Lala Lajpat Rai criticized the “politics of prayers,” emphasizing self-reliance, constructive work, and the fight for Swaraj. - Tilak's slogan: “Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it!”
8. Partition of Bengal (1905): 8.1. British Motives and Indian Reactions: - Aimed to curtail Bengali influence; led to widespread protests and the Swadeshi movement.
9. Swadeshi Movement: 9.1. Objectives and Methods: - Self-help, swadeshi enterprise, national education, use of Indian languages, boycott of British goods, and ideas of revolutionary violence.
10. Developments in Muslim Politics: 10.1. All India Muslim League (Formed 1906): - Supported partition of Bengal, and desired separate electorates for Muslims (realized in 1909).
11. Congress Split and Reunification: 11.1. Moderates vs. Radicals (1907): - Split due to differing methods; reunited in 1915. 11.2. Lucknow Pact (1916): - Congress and the Muslim League agreed to work together for representative government.
The Growth of Mass Nationalism
1. Growth of Mass Nationalism (Post-1919): 1.1. Involvement of the Masses: The movement now included peasants, tribals, students, women, and occasionally factory workers. - Some business groups began supporting the Congress in the 1920s.
2. Impact of World War I: 2.1. Economic and Political Changes: - Increase in defense expenditure, taxes, and prices; businesses profited. - Expansion of Indian industries due to war demands. - Villages pressured soldiers; returning soldiers brought anti-colonial sentiments. 2.2. Influence of International Events: - The Russian Revolution (1917) inspired Indian nationalists.
3. Mahatma Gandhi's Arrival: 3.1. Early Years: - Returned to India in 1915, and began understanding the local situation and people. - Early interventions in local movements; led a successful millworkers’ strike in 1918.
4. Rowlatt Satyagraha (1919): 4.1. Protest Against the Rowlatt Act: - The act restricted basic freedoms; and led to all-India protests and brutal suppressions, including the Jallianwala Bagh massacre. - Efforts to ensure Hindu-Muslim unity.
5. Khilafat Agitation and Non-Cooperation Movement: 5.1. Background and Development: - Issues included the harsh treaty on the Turkish Sultan (Khilafat issue), the Jallianwala Bagh massacre, and the demand for Swaraj. The movement saw widespread participation: students leaving schools, lawyers giving up practice, boycotting British goods, etc.
6. People's Initiatives: 6.1. Variety of Movements: - Different regions saw different forms of protest, often related to local grievances. - Examples include the Patidar peasants in Kheda, forest satyagrahas in Andhra Pradesh, the Akali agitation in Punjab, and more.
7. Gandhi as the People's Mahatma: 7.1. Perceptions and Expectations: - Gandhi was seen as a messiah; people believed he would help them overcome poverty and misery. - His name is often used in movements, sometimes in ways not aligning with his ideals.
8. Developments of 1922–1929: 8.1. End of Non-Cooperation Movement: - Called off by Gandhi after the violent Chauri Chaura incident. 8.2. Post-movement Strategies: - Emphasis on constructive work in rural areas and participation in councils. 8.3. New Political Formations: - Formation of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and the Communist Party of India. - Different visions for India's future; revolutionary nationalism (e.g., Bhagat Singh). 8.4. Towards Purna Swaraj: - Congress resolved to fight for complete independence in 1929, leading to the observance of "Independence Day" on 26 January 1930.
The Dandi March
1. The Dandi March and Salt Satyagraha (1930): 1.1. Context: - Fight for Purna Swaraj; necessity of active struggle. - Salt Law: State monopoly on the manufacture and sale of salt, seen as oppressive. 1.2. The March: - Led by Gandhi, a 240-mile journey from Sabarmati to Dandi. - Protesters broke the law by gathering natural salt and boiling seawater. 1.3. Participation and Impact: - Involved peasants, tribals, women, and business groups. The government responded with brutal repression; thousands were jailed.
2. Political Advances Post-Dandi: 2.1. Government of India Act (1935): - Introduced provincial autonomy. - Led to elections; Congress formed governments in 7 out of 11 provinces.
3. Outbreak of World War II and Indian Politics: 3.1. Initial Position: - War broke out in 1939; Congress was initially willing to support the British war effort. 3.2. Demand for Independence: - Congress sought assurance of post-war independence in return for support. 3.3. British Refusal and Congress Response: - The British denied the demand; Congress ministries resigned in protest.
The Quit India Movement
1. Quit India Movement (1942-1943): 1.1. Initiation: - Launched by Gandhi during WWII. - "Do or die" call for the British to quit India, with an emphasis on non-violence. 1.2. Progress and Government Response: - Leaders were jailed, but the movement spread, attracting youth and peasants. - Attacks on state symbols; parallel governments established in places. - British repression: Over 90,000 were arrested, around 1,000 killed, and aerial attacks on crowds.
2. Shift Towards Independence and Idea of Partition: 2.1. Muslim League's Stance (1940): - Resolution for "Independent States" for Muslims, not explicitly "Pakistan". - Viewed Muslims as separate from Hindus; influenced by historical tensions and political developments. 2.2. Congress-League Relations: - Issues over representation and power-sharing. - League’s growth, especially during WWII when Congress leaders were jailed. 2.3. Post-War Developments (1945-1946): - Negotiations for India's independence; disagreements over League as sole Muslim representative. - 1946 elections: Congress succeeded in general constituencies, League in Muslim seats.
3. Escalation and Partition (1946-1947): 3.1. Cabinet Mission (1946): - Proposed united India as a loose confederation; failed to achieve Congress-League agreement. 3.2. Direct Action Day and Ensuing Violence (1946): - Called by the Muslim League; led to riots and mass violence, especially in Calcutta. 3.3. Partition and its Aftermath (1947): - Violence spread, leading to massacres, displacement, and refugee crises. - Birth of Pakistan; joy of independence marred by the trauma of Partition.
Additional Concepts
1. Early Nationalist Movement: 1.1. Indian National Congress: - Founded in 1885; envisioned as the nucleus of a future Indian parliament. - Represented all Indian communities, not just a specific class or community.
2. Critique of British Rule: 2.1. Economic Impact: - Dadabhai Naoroji's book "Poverty and Un-British Rule in India" criticized the economic consequences of British rule.
3. Moderate Leaders and Radical Nationalists: 3.1. Concerns Over Material Pursuits: - Leaders criticized for being preoccupied with personal wealth. 3.2. Rise of Radical Voices: - Balgangadhar Tilak, editor of "Kesari," advocated stronger resistance against British rule. - Lala Lajpat Rai, a radical nationalist, criticized moderate strategies and supported more assertive action.
4. Revolutionary Nationalism: 4.1. Use of Violence: - Groups like the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association advocated violent means to achieve radical change. 4.2. Notable Events: - Assassination of Saunders; Bombing in the Central Legislative Assembly by Bhagat Singh and B.K. Dutt. - Execution of Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev.
5. Women in the Freedom Struggle: 5.1. Diverse Participation: - Women from various backgrounds joined the national movement, impacting both the struggle and their personal lives. 5.2. Challenges: - Women had to fight for their right to participate, with leaders like Sarojini Naidu pushing for their inclusion.
6. Tribal and Lower Caste Participation: 6.1. Significant Contributions: - Leaders like Veer Lakhan Nayak played crucial roles, with many sacrificing their lives.
7. Quit India Movement and INA: 7.1. Massive Crackdown: - The British responded to the Quit India Movement with intense repression, leading to thousands of arrests and casualties. 7.2. Subhas Chandra Bose and INA: - Bose formed the INA to overthrow British rule; despite military failures, the trials of INA officers sparked widespread protests.
8. Negotiations and Partition: 8.1. Failure to Reach Consensus: - Disagreements between the Congress and Muslim League, especially over-representation, led to the inevitability of Partition. 8.2. Horrors of Partition: - Accompanied by unprecedented communal violence, mass displacement, and humanitarian crises.
9. Key Personalities: 9.1. Diverse Leaders: - Figures like Nehru, Maulana Azad, Patel, and Jinnah significantly influenced the freedom struggle and the shape of the post-independence period.
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