✅Modern India - Class 12: Themes in Indian History

Chapter 9 - Colonialism and the Countryside

Exploring Official Archives

Colonial Rule and Its Impact on the Countryside

1. Chapter Overview

Exploration of the effects of colonial rule on rural inhabitants.

Analysis of the establishment of the English East India Company's rule and its implications on various groups.

2. Regions Covered

Bengal's zamindars.

Paharias and Santhals in Rajmahal hills.

The Deccan region.

3. English East India Company (E.I.C.)

Establishment: Introduction of the E.I.C.'s reign in rural areas.

Revenue Policies: How they affected various sections of society.

Everyday Impact: Alteration of daily life due to these policies.

4. Legal Implications

Effects of Laws: Determination of wealth distribution, land ownership, and financial resources for peasants.

Public Response: While laws influenced people, there was also resistance and modification to these laws based on public perception of justice.

5. Historical Sources

Types: Revenue records, surveys, journals, accounts by travellers, and reports from enquiry commissions.

Historians' Challenge: Issues faced in interpreting these diverse sources.

Bengal and the Zamindars

Bengal, Zamindars, and Colonial Rule

1. Introduction

Bengal: First site of British colonial rule establishment.

New land rights and revenue system initiated by the English East India Company (E.I.C.).

2. Events in Bengal

2.1 Auction in Burdwan (1797)

After the Permanent Settlement (1793), estates with unpaid revenues were auctioned.
Raja of Burdwan's estates were auctioned due to huge arrears.
Twist: 95% of auction sales were fictitious. The raja regained control through intermediaries.

2.2 Problem of Unpaid Revenue

Post Permanent Settlement: 75% of Zamindaris changed hands.
Goal of Settlement: Boost agriculture, trade, and revenue, and create loyal landowners.
Reality: High, unchanging revenue demands, often leading to auctions.

2.3 Reasons for Zamindar Defaults

High initial demands, depressed agricultural prices, fixed revenue despite harvest, and the Sunset Law (strict payment deadline).
Company's control over zamindars: Limited zamindar's power, regulated their actions, and imposed the Company's authority.

2.4 Emergence of Jotedars

End of 18th century: Rise of rich peasants, known as jotedars.
Controlled vast lands, trade, money lending, and had sharecroppers.
Jotedars resisted zamindars and often bought zamindari lands in auctions.

2.5 Zamindar Resistance

Zamindars used tactics like fictitious sales to retain control.
By the early 19th century, zamindar's power over villages strengthened, but they faced challenges during the Great Depression of the 1930s.

2.6 The Fifth Report (1813)

Detailed documentation of the Company's activities and administration.
The basis for debates on the nature of the Company’s rule.
Researchers argue the report exaggerated the decline of zamindari power.

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The Hoe and the Plough

1. Introduction

Shift from wetlands of Bengal to drier zones.

The expansion of the peasant economy led to conflicts.

2. Rajmahal Hills and its Inhabitants

2.1 Life in Rajmahal Hills

Early 19th century: Difficult terrain with hostile inhabitants.
Inhabitants: Paharias - hunters, shifting cultivators, and food gatherers.
Depended on forests for survival.
Paharias' raids on plains for survival and power assertion.

2.2 Arrival of the Santhals

Late 18th century: Santhals began to enter Bengal.
Known as settlers, cleared forests for farming.
By 1851: Over 1,473 Santhal villages were established.
Santhals faced challenges with land ownership, leading to the Santhal Revolt (1855-56) and the creation of Santhal Pargana.

2.3 Buchanan's Observations

Buchanan: British East India Company employee.
Travelled with a large entourage, collecting data for the Company.
Observed local practices, resources, and potential for commercial exploitation.
Aim: Enhance productivity by transforming landscapes.

A Revolt in the Countryside The Bombay Deccan

1. Introduction

Focus on western India, Bombay Deccan.

Examining changes through the lens of a peasant revolt in 1875.

2. The Revolt of 1875

2.1 Outbreak at Supa

The revolt started in Supa, Poona.
Attack on shopkeepers and moneylenders, burning of account books.
The revolt spread to Ahmednagar and 30+ villages, causing moneylenders to flee.
British officials feared another large-scale rebellion like 1857, leading to arrests and military intervention.

3. Causes of the Revolt

3.1 Revenue System Changes

Shift from Permanent Settlement in Bengal to temporary settlements elsewhere.
Introduction of the ryotwari system in Bombay Deccan with a direct settlement with the ryot.
Reassessment every 30 years, leading to increased revenue demands.

3.2 Rising Debts

The first revenue settlement in the 1820s led to high demands and peasant migration.
Falling agricultural prices in the 1830s were compounded by a famine.
Dependence on moneylenders increased, leading to higher debts.

3.3 Cotton Boom

Dependency of British cotton manufacturers on American cotton.
The American Civil War (1861) disrupted the cotton supply, causing a surge in demand for Indian cotton.
Rise in cotton cultivation in the Bombay Deccan.
However, the post-war recovery in American cotton led to a decline in Indian cotton demand and prices.

3.4 End of Easy Credit

Moneylenders became cautious post-cotton boom and reduced lending.
Increased revenue demands and falling prices led to further peasant indebtedness.

3.5 Injustice and Moneylenders

Violation of customary norms by moneylenders, leading to resentment.
Manipulation of laws, no transparency in transactions, and deceitful practices by moneylenders.
Bonds and deeds symbolized oppression, with peasants having little understanding of the contracts they were entering into.

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The Deccan Riots Commission

1. Establishment of the Commission

Initiated due to the spread of the Deccan revolt.

While the Bombay Government initially downplayed the seriousness, the Government of India, recalling the events of 1857, urged for a formal inquiry.

2. The Deccan Riots Report

Presented to the British Parliament in 1878.

The commission's task:

2.1 Investigation: Held inquiries in riot-affected districts.
2.2 Documentation: Recorded statements from ryots, sahukars, and eyewitnesses.
2.3 Data Compilation: Gathered statistical data on revenue, prices, and interest rates in various regions.
2.4 Report Analysis: Collation of reports from district collectors.

3. Official Interpretation and Bias

The commission was tasked to determine if the government's revenue demand was the root cause of the revolt.

It concluded that moneylenders were the primary culprits, not the government's revenue demands.

Indicates a recurring reluctance in colonial records to admit government actions as a cause for discontent.

4. Using Official Reports for Historical Analysis

Such reports are crucial for historical reconstruction.

However, they need to be read critically and cross-referenced with other sources like newspapers, unofficial accounts, legal records, and oral sources to gain a comprehensive understanding.

Additional Concepts

Zamindars, Land Reforms, and British Influences

1. Key Definitions

Raja: Used to refer to powerful zamindars.

Taluqdar: One who holds a "taluq" or a connection; "taluq" refers to a territorial unit.

Ryot: British spelling for "raiyat", referring to peasants. Some ryots in Bengal did not cultivate directly but leased to under-ryots.

Benami: Transactions made in the name of a fictitious or insignificant person, with the real beneficiary remaining anonymous.

Lathyal: A strongman of the zamindar.

Sahukar: Both a moneylender and a trader.

Rentier: People living on rental income from property.

2. Zamindars and Palaces

By the late 19th century, wealthy Bengal zamindars had city palaces with features like ballrooms and Corinthian columns.

3. Charles Cornwallis (1738-1805)

Commander of British forces during the American War of Independence.

Introduced the Permanent Settlement in Bengal in 1793.

4. Jotedars in Dinajpur

Jotedars resisted the zamindar's control, undermining their power. They held more lands than entitled to and instigated petty ryots to avoid paying their revenue.

5. Role of Moneylenders and Debt System

Ryots often faced oppression from sahukars (moneylenders).

They were charged exorbitant rates, and their produce was often taken without proper accounting.

6. Art, Perception, and Colonial India

Artists like William Hodges depicted India in a Romantic light, seeing beauty in landscapes that officials found dangerous.

Post-Santhal rebellion, British perception shifted, viewing previously calm villages as places of violent deeds.

7. Deccan Riots Commission

Established to investigate the causes of the riots. The focus was on whether the government's revenue demand was the main cause of the revolt.

8. Timeline of Significant Events

1765: English East India Company acquires Diwani of Bengal.

1773: The Regulating Act was passed to regulate the East India Company's activities.

1793: Permanent Settlement in Bengal introduced.

1800s: Santhals begin settling in the Rajmahal hills.

1818: First revenue settlement in the Bombay Deccan.

1820s: Decline in agricultural prices.

1855-56: Santhal rebellion.

1861: Start of the cotton boom.

1875: Ryots in Deccan villages rebel.

Chapter 10 - Rebels and the Raj

The Revolt of 1857 and its Representations

The Mutiny of 1857 in Meerut and Its Spread

1. Outbreak in Meerut

10 May 1857: Mutiny begins in Meerut's native infantry, spreading to the cavalry and then the city.

Participation: Both sepoys and ordinary people.

Actions:

Captured the bell of arms (weapons storage).
Attacked white residents, ransacking and burning their properties.
Government buildings like the record office, jail, court, post office, and treasury were targeted.
The telegraph line to Delhi was severed.

2. Arrival in Delhi and the Red Fort

11 May: Sepoys reach the Red Fort in Delhi during the holy month of Ramzan.

Bahadur Shah's involvement: The Mughal emperor, having finished his morning prayers, is informed of the Meerut incident and the reasons for the revolt (the issue with the bullet casings coated in animal fat).

Delhi's status: The city witnesses increased violence against Europeans, and the rich are attacked. Control of the city shifts away from the British.

Sepoys in the Red Fort: Sepoys enter, bypassing court protocols, and demanding the emperor's blessings. With limited options, Bahadur Shah complies, giving the revolt an air of legitimacy.

3. Subsequent Mutinies

12-13 May: A brief lull in North India.

Spread of the revolt: News of Delhi's fall and Bahadur Shah's endorsement of the rebellion acts as a catalyst. Many cantonments, especially in the Gangetic valley and west of Delhi, witnessed uprisings.

The Pattern of the Rebellion

The 1857 Revolt - Pattern, Leaders, and Influence of Rumours

1. Pattern of the Rebellion

Sequence: Mutinies followed a similar pattern across different cantonments.

Communication: Evidence suggests planning and coordination between sepoy lines of various cantonments.

1.1 Initiation of Mutinies

Signal: Sepoys often began their revolts with a distinct signal like the evening gun or bugle.

Actions:

Seized bell of arms and treasury.
Targeted government buildings, burning records.
Issued proclamations in multiple languages urging unity against the British.
Expansion of targets: In major towns, even moneylenders and the rich were attacked.

1.2 Lines of Communication

Coordination: Sepoys communicated between different cantonments, hinting at planning.

Collective Decisions: Panchayats, or councils, were often formed to decide collective courses of action.

1.3 Leadership of the Revolt

Pre-existing Leaders: Rebels often approached existing leaders for guidance.

Bahadur Shah in Delhi became the nominal leader.
Nana Sahib in Kanpur, Rani of Jhansi, and Kunwar Singh in Arrah assumed leadership roles.

Emergence of New Leaders: Besides traditional leaders, new leaders emerged, including religious figures and local heroes.

1.4 Influence of Rumours and Prophecies

Cartridge Controversy: Rumours spread about cartridges greased with cow and pig fat.

Conspiracy Theories: Fears that the British wanted to convert Indians to Christianity.

Chapatti Movement: Mysterious distribution of chapattis from village to village, signifying an upcoming upheaval.

Significance of Rumours: Reflected the deeper fears and beliefs of the people.

1.5 Why Rumours Held Power

British Policies: From the late 1820s, the British introduced reforms that disturbed traditional Indian society.

Annexation and Changes: Territories like Awadh were annexed and subjected to British administrative and legal systems.

Missionary Activities: Activities of Christian missionaries added to the anxieties.

Result: In this backdrop, rumours resonated with widespread fears and apprehensions.

Awadh in Revolt

2. Awadh: The Epicenter of Discontent

Historical Background: Awadh's annexation in 1856 marked the culmination of a long-standing British interest in the territory.

2.1 The Annexation of Awadh

British Perception: Lord Dalhousie viewed Awadh as ripe for annexation.

Subsidiary Alliance: Imposed in 1801, it curtailed the Nawab's power, making him reliant on the British.

British Interest: Fertile land for indigo and cotton; ideal for trading in Upper India.

2.2 Emotional Upheaval Post-Annexation

Exiled Nawab: Wajid Ali Shah was beloved, and his exile to Calcutta caused widespread grief.

Material Losses: Many dependent on the Nawab's court lost their livelihood.

2.3 Social Repercussions of Annexation

Taluqdars' Dispossession: Traditional landholders saw their power decline under British policies.

Before the British, taluqdars held 67% of villages; this reduced to 38% post-annexation.

Peasant Hardships: While taluqdars were oppressors, they also provided support in times of need. The British system lacked this flexibility.

Taluqdars and Peasants in Revolt: Many joined Begum Hazrat Mahal in resistance against the British.

2.4 The Sepoy Connection

Sepoy Discontent: Low pay, difficulty getting leave, and racial discrimination from white officers.

Rural Link: The majority of Bengal Army sepoys hailed from North Indian villages, especially Awadh.

Shared Grievances: Issues faced by sepoy families in villages resonated with sepoys, creating a feedback loop of discontent.

Unified Rebellion: The sepoys’ rebellion was swiftly joined by villagers, leading to a larger collective revolt.

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What the Rebels Wanted

3. Rebels' Perspective and Aspirations

Challenge: Few rebel records exist, so understanding is based largely on British accounts.

3.1 Vision of Unity

Inclusivity: Rebel proclamations appealed to all, irrespective of caste or creed.

Religious Unity: Hindus and Muslims were united in the cause, with no notable religious divisions.

3.2 Rebellion against Oppression

Rejection of British Rule: Proclamations rejected everything tied to "firangi raj."

Grievances: British annexations, broken treaties, and the impact of British revenue and commerce policies.

Desire for Restoration: Rebels aimed to reinstate the familiar pre-British world.

Broader Rebellion: In many areas, the revolt extended to local oppressors, elites, and moneylenders, aiming to overturn traditional hierarchies.

3.3 Establishing Alternative Power

Rebel Governance: In places like Delhi, Lucknow, and Kanpur, rebels tried to create authority and administrative structures.

Mughal Nostalgia: Rebels looked back to the 18th-century Mughal world, symbolizing what they had lost.

Administrative Endeavors: The rebels established structures for revenue collection, army command, and other administrative tasks, especially in Awadh.

Repression

4. The British Response to the 1857 Rebellion

4.1 Legal Measures

Martial Law: North India was placed under martial law through Acts passed in May and June 1857.

Power to Punish: Military officers and ordinary Britons were authorized to try and punish suspected rebels without the usual legal processes. The primary punishment for rebellion was death.

4.2 Reconquering Strategy

Two-Pronged Attack: One force moved from Calcutta, and another from the peaceful Punjab, targeting Delhi.

Capture of Delhi: Though attempts began in June, Delhi was recaptured only by late September 1857. Rebels from across North India had gathered to defend the capital.

4.3 Challenges in the Gangetic Plain

Slow Progress: British forces had to reclaim the region village by village.

Popular Support for Rebellion: The uprising had massive popular support, making it more than just a sepoy mutiny. In Awadh, an estimated three-fourths of the adult male population rebelled.

Complete Control by March 1858: The area was subdued after prolonged fighting.

4.4 British Strategies

Massive Military Force: The British deployed vast military power to crush the rebellion.

Divide and Rule: To counter the unified resistance in Uttar Pradesh, they promised big landholders the return of their estates. Loyalists were rewarded, and rebels were dispossessed. Many rebel landholders either died in battle or fled to Nepal, where many succumbed to illness or starvation.

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Images of the Revolt

5. Understanding the Revolt through Images

5.1 Sources of Information

Limited records from the rebels' perspective: primarily proclamations, letters, and notifications.

Abundant British sources: letters, diaries, autobiographies, official histories, news reports, and visual images.

5.2 Celebrating British Heroes

Paintings like “Relief of Lucknow” by Thomas Jones Barker commemorated British heroes and their victories, emphasizing British power and control.

5.3 Portrayal of English Women

Images depicted the suffering of English women and children, fostering anger and demands for revenge in Britain.

Images like “In Memoriam” evoked the impending violence and brutality of the rebels.

Other sketches showed English women as heroic figures defending themselves against rebels, intertwining the battle with religious undertones.

5.4 Calls for Vengeance

Visual representations and news stirred feelings of anger and desire for retribution in Britain.

Images depicted the British as avengers bringing justice, exemplified by the figure of justice trampling sepoys.

5.5 Brutal Repression

Rebels were executed violently, through methods like being blown from guns or hanging.

Images of these executions were disseminated widely, signifying the might and ruthlessness of the British.

5.6 Mocking Calls for Clemency

Governor General Canning's calls for mercy were ridiculed in British media.

Cartoons in journals like Punch portrayed Canning as naively protective of treacherous sepoys.

5.7 Nationalist Imagery

The 20th-century national movement drew inspiration from the 1857 revolt, celebrating it as the First War of Independence.

Leaders of the revolt were glorified in art, literature, and history.

Rani of Jhansi, for instance, was depicted as a valiant warrior resisting British rule.

5.8 Impact of Images

These images not only depicted sentiments of the time but also shaped public perception.

British images fostered support for harsh repression, while nationalist images fueled the fight against imperialism.

Additional Concepts

Introduction

Use of terms like "Firangi" (foreigner) to designate outsiders.

Rebels and the Raj - Ordinary people joined sepoys to attack the British.

Life During Revolt

Routine life is affected; a shortage of essential items.

Water carriers stopped working leading to water shortage.

Decay and potential for disease spread.

Communication of Rebellion

François Sisten's interaction with a Muslim tahsildar from Bijnor indicates covert support for the revolt.

Definitions

Mutiny: Collective disobedience within armed forces.

Revolt: Rebellion against established authority.

Prominent Figures and Events

Rani Lakshmi Bai - the symbol of resistance.

Nana Sahib - Escaped to Nepal post-rebellion, adding to his legend.

Shah Mal - Mobilized rebels against British oppression; recognized as "Raja"; killed in July 1857.

Maulvi Ahmadullah Shah - Preached jehad against the British; became a significant figure in the mutiny.

British Modernization and Policies

Introduction of Enfield rifles with greased cartridges.

Subsidiary Alliance System by Lord Wellesley.

Sentiments and Attitudes

Songs mourning the departure of the Nawab.

Taluqdars' perspective - expressed by Hanwant Singh.

The Revolt

Rebellion primarily by villagers, who were elusive to European forces.

Visual Records

Depictions of desolation and ruin by British photographers post-1857.

Paintings celebrating British heroism.

Visual representation of British retribution.

Azamgarh Proclamation, 25 August 1857

A key document outlining the grievances of various sections of society against British rule.

Sepoys' Perspective

Rejection of new greased cartridges which compromised religious beliefs.

Keywords:

Firangi: A term of Persian origin used derogatorily in Urdu and Hindi to designate foreigners.

Mutiny: Collective disobedience within armed forces.

Revolt: Rebellion against established authority.

Subsidiary Alliance: A system devised by Lord Wellesley that bound states in alliance with the British to certain conditions.

Timeline:

1801: Introduction of the Subsidiary Alliance by Wellesley in Awadh.

1856: Deposition of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah and annexation of Awadh.

1856-57: Introduction of summary revenue settlements in Awadh.

1857, 10 May: Start of the Mutiny in Meerut.

1857, 11-12 May: Revolt in Delhi; Bahadur Shah assumes leadership.

1857, 20-27 May: Mutinies in Aligarh, Etawah, Mainpuri, Etah.

1857, 30 May: Rising in Lucknow.

1857, May-June: Mutiny evolves into a general revolt.

1857, 30 June: British defeat in the Battle of Chinhat.

1857, 25 Sept: British forces enter the Residency in Lucknow.

1857, July: Shah Mal killed in battle.

1858, June: Death of Rani Jhansi in battle.

Chapter 11 - Mahatma Gandhi and the Nationalist Movement

Civil Disobedience and Beyond

Nationalism and Key Figures

Nationalism often associates a single individual with the formation of a nation.

Examples:

Garibaldi: Italy's formation.
George Washington: American War of Independence.
Ho Chi Minh: Vietnam's liberation from colonial rule.

Mahatma Gandhi: The 'Father' of the Indian Nation

Regarded as the 'Father' due to his significant influence in the freedom struggle.

Parallel: Gandhi's influence is akin to global figures like Washington and Ho Chi Minh.

Individuals and Their Historical Context

Even great individuals are shaped by their societal and historical contexts.

Their actions and choices are influenced by the society and times they live in.

Gandhi's Activities (1915-1948)

Focus on Gandhi's contributions to India during this period.

Exploration of:

Gandhi's interactions with various Indian societal sections.
The popular movements he inspired and led.

Sources for Historical Analysis

The chapter uses varied sources to reconstruct:

Gandhi's leadership journey.
The social movements associated with him.

A Leader Announces Himself

Gandhi's Return to India (1915)

After 20 years abroad, primarily in South Africa.

In South Africa:

Became a leader of the Indian community.
Developed satyagraha (non-violent protest).
Promoted religious harmony.
Addressed discrimination against low castes and women.

India's Political Landscape (1915)

India is still under British colonial rule.

Increased political activity with the Indian National Congress's expansion.

Swadeshi Movement (1905-07)

Widened Congress's appeal among the middle classes.
Produced leaders like:

Bal Gangadhar Tilak (Maharashtra)
Bipin Chandra Pal (Bengal)
Lala Lajpat Rai (Punjab)

Known collectively as "Lal, Bal, and Pal".

Two groups within Congress:

Militants: Advocated for aggressive resistance.
Moderates: Preferred a gradual approach. Including Gopal Krishna Gokhale and Mohammad Ali Jinnah.

Gandhi's Exploration of India

On Gokhale's advice, Gandhi traveled across India.

Banaras Hindu University (BHU) Speech (1916)

Gandhi's first major public appearance.
Pointed out the disparity between the elite and the poor.
Emphasized the significance of farmers and laborers in India's salvation.
Criticized the elite's detachment from the struggles of the majority.

Champaran Incident (1916)

Gandhi was informed about the mistreatment of peasants by British indigo planters in Champaran, Bihar.

The Making and Unmaking of Non-cooperation

Gandhi's Early Actions

Champaran (1917): Advocated for peasants' rights.

Gujarat (1918):

Intervened in a labor dispute in Ahmedabad.
Supported peasants in Kheda after harvest failure.

Rowlatt Act (1919)

Introduced by the British, allowing detention without trial.

Gandhi called for a countrywide campaign against it.

Major protests in Punjab; led to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre.

Non-Cooperation Movement

Gandhi's call for non-cooperation with British rule.

Actions included boycotting schools, and law courts, and not paying taxes.

Aimed to achieve swaraj (self-rule) within a year.

Allied with the Khilafat Movement to include both Hindus and Muslims.

Popular Mobilization

Massive participation across India.

Strikes, boycotts, and protests in various cities and villages.

Movement shaken by Chauri Chaura incident (torch of police station).

Gandhi called off the movement due to violence.

Gandhi's Imprisonment (1922)

Charged with sedition and sentenced to six years.

The judge acknowledged Gandhi's exceptional status and influence.

Gandhi as a People's Leader

Transformed nationalism to include all, not just the elite.

Embraced a simple lifestyle, connected with the common folk.

Rumors of Gandhi's miraculous powers spread.

Strong organizational efforts to spread nationalism.

Supported both by peasants and industrialists.

Key followers: Desai, Patel, Kripalani, Bose, Azad, Nehru, Naidu, Pant, Rajagopalachari.

Social Reforms

After release from prison (1924), Gandhi focused on:

Promotion of khadi (home-spun cloth).
Abolition of untouchability.
Social evils, such as child marriage.
Emphasis on Hindu-Muslim harmony and self-reliance.

The Salt Satyagraha: A Case Study

Background

Post the Non-Cooperation Movement, Gandhi focused on social reform.

1928: Gandhi considered re-entering politics.

All-India campaign against the all-White Simon Commission from England.

Gandhi gave blessings but didn't participate directly.

Congress Session, Lahore, 1929

Significance:

Election of Jawaharlal Nehru as President.
Proclamation of commitment to “Purna Swaraj” (complete independence).

26 January 1930: “Independence Day” observed.

Gandhi's instructions: Celebrations in villages, and cities; involve constructive work.
Participants pledge the right to freedom and to alter or abolish oppressive governments.

Dandi March

Objective: Break the British salt monopoly.

Strategy: Gandhi's tactical wisdom targeted the salt monopoly, affecting every household.

The March:

Started: 12 March 1930 from Sabarmati Ashram.
Destination: The ocean.
Parallel salt marches took place countrywide.

Impact:

Massive protests against colonial rule.
Nearly 60,000 Indians were arrested, including Gandhi.

Monitoring of the March

Police Reports: Gandhi encouraged officials to join the freedom struggle.

Coverage by Time Magazine: Initially skeptical but later recognized the impact and Gandhi's influence.

Dialogues and Outcomes

Global Attention: The Salt March brought Gandhi and the Indian struggle to the global limelight.

Participation of Women: Women, led by activists like Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay, participated prominently.

British Realization: The march signified that the British Raj wouldn't last forever.

Gandhi-Irwin Pact:

Civil disobedience to be called off.
Release of all prisoners.
Allow salt manufacture along the coast.

Round Table Conferences:

Congress was represented by Gandhi.
Challenged by the Muslim League, Princes, and B.R. Ambedkar.
No conclusive decisions.

Post March Events

Lord Willingdon: New Viceroy, unsympathetic to Gandhi.

1935: Promise of representative government in the Government of India Act.

1937: Congress victory in elections, leading eight out of 11 provinces.

World War II:

Outbreak: September 1939.
Congress offered support against the Axis if the British promised post-war independence.
Offer declined; Congress ministries resigned.

Political Landscape

Muslim League's Demand: Autonomy for Muslim-majority areas, 1940.

Three-way Struggle: Congress vs. Muslim League vs. British.

Winston Churchill: Conservative PM of Britain, opposed Indian independence.

1942 Talks with Sir Stafford Cripps: Failed due to Congress's demand for an Indian Defence Member in the Viceroy's council.

Quit India Movement

Initiation

Background: Failure of the Cripps Mission.

Launch: August 1942 by Mahatma Gandhi.

Gandhi was jailed immediately, but the movement persisted.

Activities and Impact

Young activists, including Jayaprakash Narayan, organized strikes and sabotage.

“Independent” governments were declared in areas like Satara and Medinipur.

British suppression took over a year.

It was truly a mass movement: that engaged hundreds of thousands, especially the youth.

Muslim League's Expansion

During Congress leaders' imprisonment, Jinnah and the Muslim League expanded their influence.

Marked presence in Punjab and Sind.

Post-War Developments

June 1944: Gandhi was released.

Gandhi-Jinnah meetings attempted to bridge the Congress-League divide.

1945: Labour government in Britain commits to Indian independence.

Viceroy Lord Wavell initiates Congress-League talks.

1946 Elections and Polarization

Congress won the “General” category.

Muslim League dominated Muslim-reserved seats.

Cabinet Mission in the summer of 1946: failed to create a federal system.

Jinnah's “Direct Action Day” in August 1946: riots and violence ensue.

Towards Independence

February 1947: Lord Mountbatten replaces Wavell as Viceroy.

Final talks fail; Mountbatten announces India's freedom and division.

15 August 1947: Transfer of power. Celebrations erupt across India, with praises for Mahatma Gandhi.

The Last Heroic Days

Gandhiji on 15 August 1947

Not present in the capital for Independence Day celebrations.

In Calcutta: Marked the day with a 24-hour fast.

Reason: Discontent with the division and religious strife.

Post-Independence Efforts

Gandhiji worked to console distressed people in hospitals and refugee camps.

Emphasized unity and peace among Sikhs, Hindus, and Muslims.

Congress Resolution:

Rejected the "two-nation theory".
Pledged to maintain a secular India, protecting minority rights.

Gandhiji's Finest Hour

Moved from Bengal to Delhi, aimed to later visit riot-torn Punjab.

Encountered disruptions from refugees and faced criticism.

Concerned about Muslims in Delhi and minorities in Pakistan.

Attempts on His Life

First attempt: 20 January 1948.

Continued public appearances undeterred.

Spoke on 26 January about unity, and equality, and hoped for friendship between divided India.

Gandhiji's Assassination

Date: 30 January 1948.

Assassin: Nathuram Godse.

Significance: Marked a tragic end to a lifelong battle for unity and freedom.

Global Reactions

The outpouring of grief in India and worldwide.

Tributes from figures like George Orwell and Albert Einstein.

Time Magazine's Comparison:

Gandhiji's martyrdom is likened to Abraham Lincoln's.
Both were killed for advocating equality and unity among diverse groups.

Knowing Gandhi

Public Voice and Private Scripts

The writings/speeches of Gandhi & contemporaries are vital sources.

Public vs. Private:

Speeches = public voice.
Letters = private thoughts.

Publication Awareness: Letters are sometimes shaped for potential public viewing.

Framing a Picture

Autobiographies: Retrospective accounts, rich in detail.

Caveats:

Recollections might be selective or influenced.
Must read between the lines to identify silences or omissions.

Through Police Eyes

Government Records: Colonial rulers monitored critics.

Fortnightly Reports:

Prepared by the Home Department based on police info.
Often reflected officials' biases or denials.

Salt March Perception: Seen as a drama, with minimal impact on the masses.

From Newspapers

Newspapers tracked Gandhi's movements and activities.

Bias Awareness:

Different perspectives are based on the newspaper's origin or affiliation.
Example: London paper vs. Indian nationalist paper.

Interpreting Carefully: Reflect fears, anxieties, or specific agendas.

General Consideration

Every source has its own bias or perspective.

Understanding Gandhi requires a holistic approach, considering multiple viewpoints and types of sources.

Additional Concepts

1. Introduction

Mahatma Gandhi was a significant figure in the Indian nationalist movement.

Through various movements, he aimed to achieve Swaraj or self-rule for India.

2. Movements and Events Led by Gandhi

2.1. The Early Phase

1915: Gandhi returns from South Africa.

1917: Champaran Movement - Addressed issues of indigo farmers.

1918: Movements in Kheda (peasant's cause) and Ahmedabad (workers' rights).

2.2. The Rowlatt Satyagraha and After

1919: Rowlatt Satyagraha against oppressive laws.

1919: Jallianwala Bagh Massacre where a peaceful gathering was fired upon.

2.3. Non-cooperation and Khilafat Movements

1921: Non-cooperation movement began, urging refusal to cooperate with the British.

Gandhi conjoined the Non-cooperation movement with the Khilafat Movement (a Muslim campaign to defend the Khalifa's position in Turkey).

2.4. Civil Disobedience Movement

1928: Peasant movement in Bardoli.

1929: Congress declared "Purna Swaraj" as its goal.

1930: The Civil Disobedience Movement started with the Dandi March, protesting against the salt laws.

2.5. Later Movements

1931: Gandhi-Irwin Pact and the Second Round Table Conference.

1935: Government of India Act.

1939: Congress ministries resigned.

1942: Quit India Movement began.

1946: Gandhi visited riot-torn areas like Noakhali to stop communal violence.

3. Keywords

3.1. Swaraj

Self-rule; was a major demand of the Indian National Movement.

3.2. Satyagraha

A method of mass agitation promoting passive resistance and non-cooperation.

3.3. Purna Swaraj

Complete self-rule independent of the British rule.

3.4. Khilafat Movement

A movement by Indian Muslims to protect the Khalifa's status in Turkey.

3.5. Dandi March

A protest against the salt laws, where Gandhi and others marched to produce salt without paying the tax.

3.6. Quit India Movement

A movement in 1942 demanded an end to British Rule in India.

4. Timeline of Important Dates

1915: Gandhi returns from South Africa.

1917: Champaran movement.

1918: Movements in Kheda and Ahmedabad.

1919: Rowlatt Satyagraha and Jallianwala Bagh massacre.

1921: Non-cooperation and Khilafat Movements.

1928: Peasant movement in Bardoli.

1929: "Purna Swaraj" accepted at the Lahore Congress.

1930: Civil Disobedience Movement; Dandi March.

1931: Gandhi-Irwin Pact; Second Round Table Conference.

1935: Government of India Act.

1939: Congress ministries resign.

1942: Quit India Movement.

1946: Gandhi visits riot-torn areas.

Chapter 12 - Framing the Constitution

The Beginning of a New Era

The Constitution of India

Introduction

India's Constitution, effective from 26 January 1950, is the world's longest.

Its complexity and length stem from India's vast size, diversity, and historical divisions.

Purpose & Significance

Designed to unify the country and foster progress.

Aims to mend historical and contemporary rifts, promoting unity among diverse classes, castes, and communities.

Aspires to cultivate democratic values in a traditionally hierarchical society.

Framing the Constitution

Time Frame: December 1946 to November 1949.

Process: Detailed discussions of drafts clause-by-clause in the Constituent Assembly.

Total of eleven sessions over 165 days.

Additional revision and refinement by various committees and sub-committees between sessions.

Constitution's Historical Context

Understanding the debates and history behind the Constitution reveals the vision for the new nation.

The Constitution serves as a testament to the democratic aspirations and unity of India post-Independence.

A Tumultuous Time

A Tumultuous Time & The Making of the Indian Constitution

A Tumultuous Background

Pre-Constitution years were marked by high hopes and severe disappointments.

15 August 1947: India gained independence but was also partitioned.

Key events:

Quit India struggle (1942).
Subhas Chandra Bose's armed freedom struggle.
Rising of the Royal Indian Navy (1946).
Late 1940s: Frequent mass protests by workers and peasants.

Notable: High Hindu-Muslim unity during popular upsurges.

Political Disarray:

Congress and Muslim League failed to reconcile religious differences.
Great Calcutta Killings (1946) led to riots across north and east India, culminating in the violence of Partition.

Challenges of Independence

Independence Day brought joy but also challenges:

Millions of refugees are displaced.
Threats and violence during the migration between India and Pakistan.

Princely States & Their Ambiguity

1/3 of India was ruled by Nawabs and maharajas under British oversight.

Post-independence: Unclear constitutional status.

Some harbored aspirations of independent power.

Making of the Constituent Assembly

Members were chosen by Provincial Legislatures from the 1945-46 elections.

Dominated by Congress (82% members).

Muslim League boycotted, pressing for Pakistan.

Congress members had diverse opinions, leading to debates.

The public's opinion influenced the discussions; feedback was actively sought.

Dominant Voices in the Constituent Assembly

Key figures:

Congress: Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabh Bhai Patel, and Rajendra Prasad.
Other influential members: B.R. Ambedkar, K.M. Munshi, and Alladi Krishnaswamy Aiyar.

Civil servant contributors: B. N. Rau and S. N. Mukherjee.

Ambedkar, as the Chairman of the Drafting Committee, played a pivotal role.

The Assembly saw a diverse range of opinions reflecting different visions of India.

The Vision of the Constitution

Nehru's "Objectives Resolution"

Introduced on 13 December 1946 in the Constituent Assembly.

Defined the ideals for the Constitution of Independent India.

Proclaimed India as an “Independent Sovereign Republic”.

Assured justice, equality, and freedom to its citizens.

Safeguards for minorities, backward and tribal areas, and Depressed and Other Backward Classes.

Historical Perspective

Nehru highlighted historical attempts to create documents of rights.

Mentioned American and French Revolutions.

Emphasized the unique nature of the Indian Constitution-making.

Not just copying from the West.
Fusion of Western democracy with socialist economic justice, contextualized for India.

The Will of the People

Communist member, Somnath Lahiri, raised concerns about British influence.

British still present in India during the Assembly's deliberations.

Nehru acknowledged British involvement but emphasized the strength derived from the Indian people.

The constitution should express the aspirations of the independence movement.

Historical Struggles for Democracy, Equality, and Justice

Social struggles in the 19th century set the stage.

Social reformers fighting against child marriage, promoting widow remarriage.
Movements by Swami Vivekananda, Jyotiba Phule, Communists, and Socialists.

The national movement against British rule was inherently about democracy, justice, and equality.

British-enacted Constitutional Developments

Acts of 1909, 1919, and 1935 expanded Indian participation in governance.

1937 elections (under the 1935 Act) brought Congress to power in eight out of 11 provinces.

These Acts were not directly debated by Indians but enacted by the colonial government.

The vision in 1946 was for a Constitution of an independent, sovereign Republic of India.

Defining Rights

Conflicting Views on Rights

Debates in the Constituent Assembly revolved around defining individual and group rights.

The challenge was to reconcile various demands and opinions to form a consensus.

Separate Electorates Debate

B. Pocker Bahadur championed separate electorates, believing it would give meaningful representation to minorities, especially Muslims.

Most nationalists opposed separate electorates, seeing it as divisive and a colonial strategy to weaken Indian unity.

Fears were exacerbated due to the recent Partition.

By 1949, many Muslim members believed that active participation in a democratic process was more beneficial than separate electorates.

Economic Interpretation of Minorities

N.G. Ranga argued for recognizing minorities in economic terms, emphasizing the rights of the poor and downtrodden.

Asserted the importance of practical measures to ensure the effective enjoyment of constitutional rights.

Rights of the Tribals

Jaipal Singh, a tribal representative, highlighted the historical injustices faced by the tribes.

Emphasized the need for reservation of seats for tribals in the legislature to ensure their representation.

Rights of the Depressed Castes

The challenge was to balance Ambedkar's demand for separate electorates for Depressed Castes with Gandhi's opposition to such segregation.

J. Nagappa emphasized that the issues of the "Untouchables" stemmed from the social norms and moral values of caste society.

The Constituent Assembly decided on:

Abolishing untouchability.
Opening Hindu temples to all castes.
Reserving seats in legislatures and government jobs for the lowest castes.

Recognized that legislative measures alone wouldn't eradicate social discrimination; societal attitudes needed to change.

The Powers of the State

Central vs State Powers Debate

The Constituent Assembly intensely debated the balance of powers between the Central Government and the states.

Jawaharlal Nehru advocated for a stronger Centre for ensuring peace, coordinated governance, and a unified international voice.

Draft Constitution's Distribution of Powers

The Draft Constitution introduced three subject lists: Union, State, and Concurrent.

The Union had more subjects under its exclusive control, including minerals and key industries.

Article 356 allowed the Centre to take over a state administration upon the Governor's recommendation.

A complex fiscal federalism was established, with certain taxes for the Centre, shared taxes, and some reserved for states.

Arguments in Favor of the States

K. Santhanam from Madras argued for more powers to the states to ensure both the states and the Centre functioned effectively.

Santhanam, and others, believed that excessive centralization would lead to provincial impoverishment and potential revolt against the Centre.

Support for a Strong Centre

Ambedkar and others argued for a strong Centre, emphasizing the challenges of communal riots and the necessity of a unified approach to nation-building.

Gopalaswami Ayyangar asserted the need for the strongest possible Centre.

Balakrishna Sharma from the United Provinces believed only a strong Centre could effectively plan for the nation's well-being, administration, and defence.

After Partition, the inclination shifted towards centralization due to reduced political pressures and the existing unitary system imposed by colonial rule.

The Language of the Nation

Language Diversity Challenge

Different regions in India have distinct languages and cultures.

The Constituent Assembly faced the challenge of selecting a unifying language for diverse communities.

Hindustani: A Composite Language

By the 1930s, the Congress had identified Hindustani (a blend of Hindi and Urdu) as the ideal national language, as proposed by Mahatma Gandhi.

Hindustani was seen as a multi-cultural language that bridged diverse communities.

Shift from Hindustani

By the end of the 19th century, Hindi and Urdu began diverging.

Hindi leaned towards Sanskrit, while Urdu tilted towards Persian, making them symbols of religious identities.

A Plea for Hindi

R. V. Dhulekar passionately advocated for Hindi to be the national language.

He faced opposition but insisted on Hindi's superiority and relevance.

Concerns about Hindi Dominance

Shrimati G. Durgabai voiced concerns about the potential dominance of Hindi over other languages.

She highlighted that the inclusiveness of Hindustani was being eroded, causing anxiety among various linguistic groups.

Appeals for Caution and Adjustment

Many Assembly members emphasized the need for mutual respect and understanding.

They warned against the aggressive promotion of Hindi, highlighting the importance of unity and compromise.

Salient Features of the Constitution

Universal Adult Franchise: The Constitution granted the right to vote to every adult Indian, a significant departure from phased enfranchisement in other democracies.

Secularism: Emphasized through Fundamental Rights, ensuring freedom of religion, cultural and educational rights, and rights to equality. The State maintained a "judicious distance" from religion.

Additional Concepts

Constitutional Development

Fig. 12.1: Constitution signed in December 1949 after three years of deliberation.

Fig. 12.3: Jawaharlal Nehru's iconic speech on 14 August 1947, marking India's independence.

Fig. 12.4: Constituent Assembly in session with key figures like Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel.

Fig. 12.5: B. R. Ambedkar presides over the discussion of the Hindu Code Bill.

Nehru emphasizes learning from global examples while crafting India's Constitution. He champions democracy tailored to India's needs.

Images and Reflections

Fig. 12.2: The trauma of partition and its aftermath weighed heavily on the Constituent Assembly members.

Fig. 12.7 & 12.8: Contextual images of key figures and events shaping India's destiny.

Views on Language and Minorities

Gandhi's perspective: Hindustani should be a blend of Hindi and Urdu, enriched with regional and foreign words.

Discussions around the protection and representation of minorities and the essence of a national language.

Leaders' Statements

Sardar Vallabh Bhai Patel: Urges for unity and warns against divisive policies like separate electorates.

Dakshayani Velayudhan: Advocates for the rights of the masses.

Hansa Mehta: Calls for justice and equality for women.

Sir A. Ramaswamy Mudaliar: Emphasizes the need for balance in governance structures.

Mahatma Gandhi: Advocates for a rich and inclusive national language.

Important Dates:

1945

26 July: The Labour Government assumes power in Britain.
December-January: General Elections in India.

1946

16 May: Cabinet Mission announces its constitutional scheme.
16 June: Muslim League and Cabinet Mission on constitutional matters.
16 August: Muslim League's Direct Action Day.
2 September: Nehru becomes Vice-President of the Interim Government.
13 October: Muslim League joins the Interim Government.
3-6 December: Failed talks between British PM Attlee and Indian leaders.
9 December: Constituent Assembly starts.

1947

29 January: Muslim League's demand.
16 July: Last meeting of the Interim Government.
11 August: Jinnah becomes President of Pakistan's Constituent Assembly.
14 August: Pakistan's Independence.
14-15 August: India celebrates Independence.

1949

December: Signing of the Constitution.

Keywords Defined:

Constituent Assembly: A body of representatives responsible for drafting or adopting a constitution.

Hindustani: A blend of Hindi and Urdu languages.

Interim Government: A provisional governing body in the transitional phase.

Direct Action Day: A day of political action without the use of intermediaries or a day of protests called by a political group.

✅Modern India - Class 12: Themes in Indian History - Part 3