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✅📝 Politics In India Since Independence
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✅📝 Politics In India Since Independence

Chapter 1 - Challenges of Nation Building
1. Introduction
  • 1.1. Context of the Chapter
    • The initial years of independent India were marked by numerous challenges.
    • This chapter delves into the challenges faced in the realm of nation-building during the first decade post-1947.
  • 1.2. Key Challenges Highlighted
    • The aftermath of partition led to widespread violence and displacement, questioning the secular fabric of India.
    • The integration of princely states into the Indian union required immediate attention.
    • Redrawing the internal boundaries of the country was essential to cater to the aspirations of linguistically diverse populations.
2. The Dawn of Independence
  • 2.1. The Historic Moment
    • India achieved independence on the midnight of 14-15 August 1947.
    • Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister, addressed the Constituent Assembly with his iconic "tryst with destiny" speech.
  • 2.2. The Dual Goals of the National Movement
    • Establishing a democratic government.
    • Ensuring governance for the welfare of all, especially the marginalized.
  • 2.3. The Challenges of 1947
    • Independence was accompanied by the partition, leading to violence and displacement.
    • The leaders, despite the turmoil, remained focused on addressing the multifaceted challenges facing the new nation.
3. The Threefold Challenges of Independent India
  • 3.1. Unity in Diversity
    • The primary challenge was to mold a nation that was cohesive yet respectful of societal diversity.
    • Questions arose about India's future unity and the potential sidelining of regional identities.
  • 3.2. Establishing Democracy
    • While the Constitution provided a framework, the real task was to instill democratic practices in line with it.
  • 3.3. Socio-Economic Development
    • The Constitution emphasized equality and protection for disadvantaged groups.
    • The challenge lay in formulating effective policies for economic growth and poverty eradication.
4. Poetic Reflections on Independence
  • 4.1. "The Dawn of Freedom" by Faiz Ahmed Faiz
    • The poem captures the mixed emotions of the time - the joy of freedom juxtaposed with the scars of partition.
  • 4.2. Mohammad Ali Jinnah's Address
    • Emphasized the importance of secularism and the irrelevance of religious or caste affiliations in the governance of the state.
Chapter 2 - Era of One Party Dominance
Chapter: Era of One-Party Dominance
  1. Introduction
      • The challenge of nation-building was accompanied by the challenge of instituting democratic politics.
      • Electoral competition among political parties began immediately after Independence.
      • Topics covered:
          1. Establishment of a system of free and fair elections.
          1. Domination of the Congress party in the years immediately after Independence.
          1. Emergence of opposition parties and their policies.
  1. Challenge of Building Democracy
      • Independent India faced serious challenges of nation-building.
      • Many countries chose non-democratic rule over democracy to maintain national unity.
      • India's freedom struggle was deeply committed to democracy.
      • Politics was seen as a solution to societal problems.
      • The Constitution was adopted on 26 November 1949, signed on 24 January 1950, and came into effect on 26 January 1950.
      • The Election Commission of India was set up in January 1950 with Sukumar Sen as the first Chief Election Commissioner.
  1. First General Election
      • The first general election was a mammoth exercise.
      • Challenges:
          1. Delimitation of electoral constituencies.
          1. Preparing electoral rolls.
          1. Ensuring names of all eligible voters, especially women, were correctly recorded.
      • The election was a test for democracy in a poor and illiterate country.
      • Voting methods:
          1. Initially, a box for each candidate with their election symbol.
          1. Later, a ballot paper with names and symbols of all candidates.
          1. Currently, Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs).
  1. Congress Dominance in the First Three General Elections
      • The Indian National Congress was expected to win the first general election due to its legacy and widespread organization.
      • Jawaharlal Nehru, a charismatic leader, led the Congress campaign.
      • The Congress won 364 of the 489 seats in the first Lok Sabha.
Chapter 3 - Politics of Planned Development
📖
Left vs Right:
The idea of planning as a process of rebuilding the economy gained significant public support during the 1940s and 1950s worldwide.
Factors contributing to this consensus:
  • The experience of the Great Depression in Europe.
  • The inter-war reconstruction of Japan and Germany.
  • The remarkable economic growth in the Soviet Union during the 1930s and 1940s, despite challenging conditions.
Planning Commission's origin was not sudden. It has a rich history that is commonly associated with the left-right debate. The actual narrative is more intricate...
1. Introduction
  • The chapter focuses on the challenges of economic development in independent India.
  • Leaders of India chose a unique path for economic development.
  • Key questions of economic development are explored:
    • Key choices and debates about development.
    • Strategy adopted by leaders in the first two decades.
    • Achievements and limitations of this strategy.
    • Reasons for abandoning this development strategy.
2. Economic Development in Orissa
  • Orissa has one of the largest untapped iron ore reserves.
  • State government signed MoUs with international and domestic steel makers.
  • Concerns:
    • Tribal population fears displacement.
    • Environmentalists worry about pollution.
    • Central government's perspective on industry and investments.
3. Political Contestation
  • Major decisions involve weighing interests of different groups.
  • Decisions should be taken by people's representatives.
  • Development decisions were influenced by a shared vision or model of economic development.
4. Ideas of Development
  • Development has different meanings for different people.
  • Two models of modern development: liberal-capitalist (Western) and socialist (USSR).
  • Nationalist leaders believed in a role for the government in development.
  • Debates on industrialization vs. agriculture.
5. Planning
  • Consensus on the need for government planning for development.
6. Planning Commission
  • Set up in March 1950 by a resolution of the Government of India.
  • Advisory role; recommendations effective after Union Cabinet approval.
  • Objectives aligned with the Directive Principles of State Policy in the Constitution.
  • Replaced by NITI Aayog in 2015.
Highlights:
  • Importance of government intervention in development.
  • Challenges faced by tribal populations due to industrialization.
  • Role of the Planning Commission in shaping India's development trajectory.
Important Facts, Dates, and Names:
  • Orissa's iron ore reserves.
  • Planning Commission established in March 1950.
  • NITI Aayog established on 1 January 2015.
Bombay Plan:
  • The Bombay Plan was drafted in 1944 by a section of big industrialists.
  • Contrary to common assumptions, these industrialists were not against planning. In fact, they proposed a planned economy for the country.
  • The Bombay Plan advocated for the state to take major initiatives in industrial and other economic investments.
  • It was seen as a blueprint for India's economic future and strongly supported the idea of planning.
K.N. Raj:
  • K.N. Raj was a young economist involved in drafting the First Five Year Plan (1951–1956).
  • He believed that India should "hasten slowly" for the first two decades, as rapid development might endanger democracy.
  • The First Five Year Plan primarily addressed the agrarian sector, focusing on investments in dams, irrigation, and land reforms.
P.C. Mahalanobis:
  • P.C. Mahalanobis was a scientist and statistician of international repute and the founder of the Indian Statistical Institute (1931).
  • He played a pivotal role as the architect of the Second Five Year Plan.
  • The Second Plan emphasized rapid industrialization and a significant role for the public sector.
  • Mahalanobis supported the idea of rapid industrialization and believed in the active role of the public sector in achieving this
Chapter 4 - India’s External Relations
1. Introduction:
  • The chapter delves into India's external challenges, relations, and the policy of non-alignment.
  • India faced external challenges with innovative responses, such as the policy of non-alignment.
  • India engaged in three wars in 1962, 1965, and 1971, highlighting the relationship between external and internal politics.
2. International Context:
  • India emerged in a challenging international context post World War II, with the world grappling with reconstruction and the establishment of an international body.
  • Many new countries emerged due to the collapse of colonialism, and India aimed to respect the sovereignty of all nations and achieve security through peace.
  • The developing countries lacked resources to advocate their concerns, leading them to support the foreign policies of powerful countries.
3. Policy of Non-Alignment:
  • The Indian national movement was part of the global struggle against colonialism, and India's foreign policy reflected the ideals of its freedom struggle.
  • Nehru's foreign policy aimed to preserve sovereignty, protect territorial integrity, and promote economic development.
  • India advocated non-alignment to avoid joining military alliances led by the US or Soviet Union.
4. Nehru's Role:
  • Nehru played a pivotal role in setting India's national agenda, aiming to achieve major objectives through non-alignment.
  • India maintained a distance from the two major Cold War camps, focusing on peace and development in their region.
5. Afro-Asian Unity:
  • Nehru championed Asian unity, establishing contacts with newly independent states in Asia and Africa.
  • India supported decolonization, opposed racism, and the Bandung Conference in 1955 marked India's engagement with Asian and African nations, leading to the establishment of the NAM.
6. Peace and Conflict with China:
  • India began its relationship with China on a friendly note, recognizing the communist government post the 1949 Chinese revolution.
  • The Panchsheel principles, or the Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, were jointly enunciated by Nehru and Chinese Premier Zhou Enlai in 1954 for stronger relations between the two countries.
Highlighted/Underlined Content:
  • Quote by Jawaharlal Nehru: "What does independence consist of? It consists fundamentally and basically of foreign relations. That is the test of independence. All else is local autonomy."
  • Quote by C. Rajagopalachari: "A country without material, men or money – the three means of power – is now fast coming to be recognised as the biggest moral power in the civilised world …her word listened to with respect in the councils of the great."
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Chapter 5 - Challenges to and Restoration of the Congress System
  • Introduction:
    • The chapter discusses the challenges faced by the Congress system during the 1960s.
    • The Congress faced challenges from a more powerful and less divided opposition.
    • The chapter aims to understand the political transition after Nehru, describe the challenges to Congress dominance, explain how Indira Gandhi's Congress overcame these challenges, and analyze how new policies and ideologies facilitated the restoration of the Congress system.
  • Challenge of Political Succession:
    • Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru passed away in May 1964, leading to questions about his successor and the future of India's democratic experiment.
    • Concerns arose about whether India would manage a democratic succession, with fears of potential military intervention.
    • The 1960s were seen as a "dangerous decade" due to unresolved issues like poverty, inequality, and communal and regional divisions.
  • From Nehru to Shastri:
    • After Nehru's death, Lal Bahadur Shastri was unanimously chosen as the next Prime Minister.
    • Shastri faced challenges like economic implications from the war with China, drought, food crisis, and the 1965 war with Pakistan.
    • His slogan "Jai Jawan Jai Kisan" symbolized India's resolve to face these challenges.
    • Shastri's tenure ended abruptly with his sudden death in Tashkent in 1966.
  • From Shastri to Indira Gandhi:
    • After Shastri's death, there was competition for leadership between Morarji Desai and Indira Gandhi.
    • Indira Gandhi was chosen as the Prime Minister after a secret ballot among Congress MPs.
    • Her initial years as Prime Minister were marked by economic challenges and the need to establish her leadership within the party.
  • Fourth General Elections, 1967:
    • The 1967 elections were significant due to changes in the political landscape.
    • The country faced economic crises, and Indira Gandhi, the new Prime Minister, had been in office for less than a year.
    • The elections marked a shift from the Congress's dominance since 1952
Chapter 6 - The Crisis of Democratic Order
1. Introduction:
  • The period between 1973 and 1975 brought challenges to India's democratic politics leading to the imposition of 'emergency' in June 1975 due to perceived threat of internal disturbance.
  • The chapter addresses questions such as:
      1. Why was the Emergency imposed and was it necessary?
      1. What did the imposition of Emergency mean in practice?
      1. What were the consequences of Emergency on party politics?
      1. What are the lessons of Emergency for Indian democracy?
2. Background to Emergency:
  • Indira Gandhi emerged as a significant leader post-1967.
  • Tensions arose between the government and the judiciary.
  • Economic conditions deteriorated post-1971 due to the Bangladesh crisis, war with Pakistan, and global oil price hikes.
  • Inflation rates soared, industrial growth was stagnant, and unemployment was high.
  • Poor monsoons in 1972-1973 led to a decline in agricultural productivity.
3. Political and Social Unrest:
  • Students' unrests became more pronounced.
  • Marxist groups, known as Naxalites, increased their activities, especially in West Bengal.
  • Gujarat and Bihar Movements:
    • Students protested against rising prices and corruption.
    • The protests expanded, leading to President's rule in Gujarat.
    • The Congress faced defeat in the June 1975 Gujarat elections.
    • In Bihar, students invited Jayaprakash Narayan (JP) to lead their movement, which gained national appeal.
    • JP's movement aimed for total revolution in various spheres to establish true democracy.
4. Railway Strike of 1974:
  • Led by George Fernandes, the National Coordination Committee for Railwaymen's Struggle called for a nationwide strike.
  • The strike lasted for twenty days without any settlement.
5. Conflict with Judiciary:
  • The period witnessed conflicts between the Parliament and the judiciary over Fundamental Rights and the Constitution.
Highlighted Content:
  • The editorial page of ‘Nai Dunia’ on 27 June 1975 was left blank as a protest against emergency censorship.
  • Slogans from the period:
    • "Sampoorna Kranti ab nara hai, bhavi itihas hamara hai" (With Total Revolution as our motto, the future belongs to us).
    • "Indira is India, India is Indira" given by D. K. Barooah, President of the Congress, 1974.
Notable Personalities:
  • Indira Gandhi
  • Jayaprakash Narayan (JP)
  • George Fernandes
  • D. K. Barooah
Chapter 7 - Regional Aspirations
1. Introduction:
  • The chapter discusses the challenges faced by India's democratic politics due to regional aspirations.
  • Questions addressed:
      1. Which factors contribute to the tensions arising out of regional aspirations?
      1. How has the Indian state responded to these tensions and challenges?
      1. What difficulties arise in balancing democratic rights and national unity?
      1. What are the lessons for achieving unity with diversity in a democracy?
2. Region and the Nation:
  • The 1980s saw rising regional aspirations for autonomy, often outside the framework of the Indian Union.
  • Movements involved armed assertions, government repression, and collapse of political processes.
  • Accords were reached after dialogues to settle issues within the constitutional framework.
  • Indian approach to diversity emphasized retaining the culture of different regions and linguistic groups.
  • India adopted a democratic approach to diversity, allowing regional aspirations to be expressed without being seen as anti-national.
3. Areas of Tension:
  • After Independence, India faced challenges like Partition, integration of Princely States, reorganization of states, etc.
  • Issues arose in regions like Kashmir, Nagaland, Punjab, Assam, Mizoram, and Tamil Nadu.
  • The challenge of diversity was met by redrawing internal boundaries.
4. Jammu and Kashmir:
  • J&K had a special status under Article 370.
  • The region experienced violence, terrorism, political instability, and displacement of Kashmiri Pandits.
  • J&K comprises three regions: Jammu (Hindu majority), Kashmir (Muslim majority), and Ladakh (Buddhist and Muslim).
  • The problem's roots trace back to the Princely State era, with Maharaja Hari Singh desiring independence for J&K.
5. Dravidian Movement:
  • The movement opposed Brahmin dominance and affirmed regional pride against North Indian domination.
  • Dravidar Kazhagam (DK) was formed under E.V. Ramasami 'Periyar'.
  • The movement was limited to Tamil Nadu, with DMK emerging as its political legacy.
  1. Goan Liberation:
  • Background: After India gained independence in 1947, Goa remained under Portuguese control. The Portuguese were unwilling to give up their hold over Goa and other enclaves like Daman and Diu.
  • Liberation: In 1961, the Indian government, after trying diplomatic means, launched Operation Vijay. The military operation lasted 36 hours, resulting in the annexation of Goa into the Indian Union.
  • Aftermath: Goa, along with Daman and Diu, was made a Union Territory. In 1987, Goa was granted statehood, while Daman and Diu remained a Union Territory
  1. Sikkim Merger
  • Background: Sikkim, a Himalayan kingdom, was a protectorate of India. The Chogyal (King) of Sikkim was the ruler, but the Indian Army was responsible for its defense, and the Indian government controlled its external affairs.
  • Merger: In 1975, after a series of political events and a referendum, Sikkim became the 22nd state of the Indian Union, ending its monarchy.
  • Aftermath: The merger was not without controversy, but over time, Sikkim has integrated well into the Indian Union.
  1. Punjab Issue
  • Background: The demand for a separate Sikh-majority state, named Khalistan, led to conflicts in the Punjab region. The Anandpur Sahib Resolution was a declaration of the decentralization of powers and more autonomy for Punjab.
  • Operation Blue Star: In 1984, the Indian government, under Prime Minister Indira Gandhi, initiated Operation Blue Star to remove Sikh militants who were hiding in the Golden Temple in Amritsar. The operation was controversial and led to the assassination of Indira Gandhi by her Sikh bodyguards.
  • Aftermath: The 1980s and early 1990s saw a period of insurgency in Punjab, but over time, with political and social measures, peace was restored in the state.
  1. North-Eastern Issue:
  • Background: The North-East region of India, comprising states like Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, and Arunachal Pradesh, has seen various demands ranging from autonomy to secession.
  • Assam: The Assam Movement (1979-1985) was against 'outsiders' or illegal immigrants, primarily from Bangladesh. The Assam Accord was signed in 1985 to end the movement.
  • Nagaland: The demand for a separate Nagaland state led to conflicts. Over time, several accords were signed, and while there is relative peace, some issues remain unresolved.
  • Mizoram: The Mizo National Front (MNF) led an insurgency against the Indian government. The insurgency ended with the signing of the Mizoram Peace Accord in 1986.
  • Other States: Other states in the North-East have seen demands for autonomy, with issues related to 'outsiders' or settlers from other parts of India, and conflicts between tribal groups.
The North-East region's politics is dominated by demands for autonomy, movements for secession, and opposition to 'outsiders'. The vast international border and weak communication between the North-East and the rest of India have added to the delicate nature of politics there.
Highlighted Content:
  • Slogan from Dravidian Movement: 'Vadakku Vaazhgiradhu; Therkku Thaeikiradhu' (The north thrives even as the south decays).
  • E.V. Ramasami Naicker (1879-1973): Known as Periyar; strong supporter of atheism; anti-caste struggle; rediscovery of Dravidian identity; founder of Dravidar Kazhagam; opposed Hindi and North Indian domination.
Notable Personalities:
  • Sheikh Abdullah
  • Maharaja Hari Singh
  • E.V. Ramasami 'Periyar'
Chapter 8 - Recent Development in Indian Politics
1. Introduction:
  • The chapter provides a synoptic view of the last two decades of politics in India.
  • Key questions addressed:
      1. Implications of the rise of coalition politics for democracy.
      1. Understanding Mandalisation and its impact on political representation.
      1. Legacy of the Ramjanambhoomi movement and Ayodhya demolition on political mobilization.
      1. Impact of the new policy consensus on political choices.
2. Context of the 1990s:
  • Rajiv Gandhi's Era: Became Prime Minister after Indira Gandhi's assassination. Led Congress to a massive victory in 1984.
  • Five Key Developments:
      1. Defeat of Congress (1989): Congress reduced from 415 seats (1984) to 197 seats. Marked the end of the 'Congress system'.
      1. Rise of the Mandal Issue: Implementation of Mandal Commission recommendations led to 'anti-Mandal' protests.
      1. New Economic Reforms: Initiated by Rajiv Gandhi and became prominent in 1991. Changed the direction of the Indian economy.
      1. Ayodhya Issue: Demolition of Babri Masjid in December 1992. Symbolized changes in politics and debates on nationalism and secularism.
      1. Assassination of Rajiv Gandhi (1991): Assassinated by an LTTE-linked Sri Lankan Tamil. Narsimha Rao became the Prime Minister post his death.
3. Era of Coalitions:
  • 1989 Elections: Led to Congress's defeat without a majority for any other party. National Front formed a coalition government with support from BJP and Left Front.
  • Decline of Congress: End of Congress dominance in the Indian party system. Emergence of other parties but no single party took its predominant position.
Highlighted Content:
  • Mandalisation: A significant political and social phenomenon resulting from the implementation of the Mandal Commission's recommendations.
  • New Economic Policy: Initiated major economic reforms that changed the direction of the Indian economy since Independence.
  • Ayodhya Issue: The demolition of the Babri Masjid intensified debates about Indian nationalism and secularism.
Notable Personalities:
  • Rajiv Gandhi
  • V. P. Singh
  • Narsimha Rao
  • Manmohan Singh
Emergence of a New Consensus:
  • Background: The period post-1989 is often viewed as a phase marking the decline of the Congress and the rise of the BJP. To comprehend the intricate nature of political competition during this era, it's essential to compare the electoral performances of both the Congress and the BJP.
  • Growing Consensus: Amidst intense competition and numerous conflicts, a consensus seems to have evolved among most political parties. This consensus encompasses four primary elements:
      1. New Economic Policies:
          • While several groups oppose the new economic policies, the majority of political parties support them.
          • Most parties believe these policies will lead India to prosperity and establish it as an economic powerhouse globally.
      1. Acceptance of Backward Castes' Claims:
          • Political parties have acknowledged that the social and political claims of the backward castes must be accepted.
          • As a result, all political parties now endorse reservation of seats for the 'backward classes' in education and employment. They are also keen to ensure that the OBCs receive an adequate share of power.
      1. State-Level Parties in Governance:
          • The distinction between state-level and national-level parties is rapidly diminishing in significance.
          • State-level parties play a pivotal role in forming ruling alliances, marking the onset of coalition governments at the Centre.
      1. Consensus Amidst Competition:
          • Even as political parties operate within this consensus's realm, popular movements and organizations are simultaneously pinpointing new forms, visions, and development pathways.
          • Issues like poverty, displacement, minimum wages, livelihood, and social security are being placed on the political agenda by people's movements, reminding the state of its responsibilities.
          • Similarly, justice and democracy issues are being articulated by the public in terms of class, caste, gender, and regions.
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