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✅📝 Social Change & Development in India
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✅📝 Social Change & Development in India

Chapter 1 : Structural Change
1. Introduction
  • 1.1. Structural Change
    • The chapter discusses the structural changes in India.
    • The paradoxical experiences with colonialism have influenced India's modernity.
    • British colonialism's remnants are still evident in contemporary India.
    • The English language has had both positive and negative impacts on India. For instance:
      • English is a symbol of privilege in India.
      • English proficiency has given Indians a competitive edge in the global market.
  • 1.2. Primary Structural Changes
    • Two main structural changes in Indian society:
      • Industrialization
      • Urbanization
2. Understanding Colonialism (1.1)
  • 2.1. Definition
    • Colonialism refers to the establishment of rule by one country over another.
  • 2.2. Differences in Empire Building
    • Pre-capitalist time: Dominated by continuous flow of tribute and outright pillage.
    • Capitalist time (British era): Focused on maximizing profit, often at the expense of humanity.
  • 2.3. British Impact on India
    • The British altered laws, dictated agricultural practices, and implemented forest acts.
    • Their policies affected pastoralists and led to the displacement of tribal and indigenous people.
      • Example: The expansion of reserved forests in northeast India during the colonial period.
3. Structural Changes due to Colonialism
  • 3.1. Movements and Shifts
    • Significant movement of people, e.g., plantation workers moving from Jharkhand to Assam.
    • Emergence of a new middle class: doctors, lawyers, government employees, and professionals.
  • 3.2. Western Education
    • Introduced by the British for their benefit.
    • Unintended consequence: Rise of nationalist and anti-colonial consciousness in India.
4. Capitalism and Nation State
  • 4.1. Capitalism
    • An economic system where means of production are privately owned.
    • It is dynamic, innovative, and global in nature.
  • 4.2. Nation State
    • A state with sovereign power within a defined territorial area.
    • The rise of the nation state is closely tied to the rise of nationalism.
    • Indian nationalism: Focused on achieving "Swaraj" or freedom.
5. Urbanization and Industrialization: The Colonial Experience (1.2)
  • 5.1. Industrialization
    • Transition from agriculture to machine-based production.
    • In the West, industrialization led to urbanization.
    • In India, British industrialization caused some sectors to deindustrialize.
  • 5.2. Urban Centers
    • Some cities declined, while others like Bombay and Madras flourished.
    • British industrialization in India led to a shift towards agriculture.
  • 5.3. Role of Cities
    • Coastal cities like Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai became significant due to their ability to facilitate trade.
6. Industrialization and Urbanization in Independent India
  • 6.1. Industrialization
    • Nationalists viewed colonial economic exploitation as a central issue.
    • The Swadeshi movement emphasized the importance of a national economy.
    • Nehru envisioned a modern India built on the foundation of steel plants, dams, and power stations.
  • 6.2. Urbanization
    • Rapid urbanization in India with the concept of "smart cities."
    • Different types of cities have emerged, influenced by various urban factors.
7. Conclusion
  • The chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the structural changes in India, influenced by both colonialism and post-independence developments.
Tables:
Timeline Table
Year
Event
1861-1878
69 square miles designated as reserved forest
1894
3683 square miles designated as reserved forest
End of 19th Century
20,000 061 square miles designated as reserved forest
1834-1920
Movement of people for plantation work in Mauritius
1911
Census of India report
1951
17.29% of India's population in towns
2011
31.16% of India's population in towns
Concepts Table
Concept
Definition
Colonialism
Establishment of rule by one country over another
Capitalism
Economic system where means of production are privately owned
Nation State
State with sovereign power within a defined territorial area
Personalities Table
Personality
Contribution/Role
Jawaharlal Nehru
Chairman of the national planning committee and key advocate for industrialization
Note: The tables are based on the provided transcript and may need to be expanded upon further review of the entire content.
Chapter 2 : Cultural Change
  1. Introduction
      • Industrialization and urbanization during the colonial period significantly altered people's lives.
      • Social structure is a continuous arrangement of individuals in relationships defined or controlled by institutions. Culture is defined by socially established norms or patterns of behavior.
  1. 19th and Early 20th Century Social Reform Movements
      • Social evils prevalent during this period included Sati, child marriage, widow remarriage, and caste discrimination.
      • Movements like Buddhism, Bhakti, and Sufi sought to combat these evils.
      • Socialists like Satish Saberwal highlighted three points of cultural change in colonial India: mode of communication, forms of organization, and the nature of ideas.
      • Reformers and their contributions:
        • Rammohan Roy: Opposed Sati on humanitarian and religious grounds.
        • Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar: Advocated for widow remarriage based on Hindu law and Vedic authorities.
        • Sir Saiyed Ahmed Khan: Emphasized the validity of free inquiry in Islam and the alignment between Quranic revelations and modern scientific discoveries.
        • Kandukiri Viresalingam: Wrote "The Source of Knowledge" and showcased familiarity with Navya Nyaya logic.
        • Jyotiba Phule: Opened the first school for women in Pune and celebrated the pre-Aryan age.
        • Bal Gangadhar Tilak: Emphasized the glory of the Aryan past.
        • Jahanara Shah Nawaz: Proposed a resolution against polygamy at the All India Muslim Ladies Conference.
        • Pandita Ramabai, Vidya Sagar, Dayanand Saraswati, Narayana Guru, Keshav Chandra Sen: Other notable reformers who contributed to societal change.
  1. Sanskritization
      • Definition: Coined by M.N. Srinivas, it refers to the process where a lower caste or tribe adopts the customs, rituals, beliefs, ideology, and style of a higher, particularly twice-born, caste.
      • Implications:
        • Aims to improve a group's position in the local caste hierarchy.
        • Enhances the economic or political position of the group.
        • Facilitates the group's integration into the broader traditions of Hinduism, such as pilgrim centers or monasteries.
      • Criticisms of Sanskritization:
          1. Exaggerated Social Mobility.
          1. Lack of Structural Change.
          1. Reinforcement of Upper Caste Ideology.
          1. Justification of Caste-based Discrimination.
          1. Aspiration for Upper Caste Lifestyle.
          1. Adoption of Regressive Practices.
          1. Erosion of Lower Caste Culture.
  1. Westernization
      • Definition: As defined by M.N. Srinivas, it's the changes brought about in Indian society and culture due to 150 years of British rule, encompassing changes in technology, institutions, ideology, and values.
      • Types:
          1. Emergence of Westernized Subculture: A minority of Indians who came into direct contact with Western culture adopted their cognitive patterns and lifestyles. This subculture includes the emergence of social reformers and national movement leaders who were influenced by Western ideas.
          1. General Spread of Western Traits: Widespread adoption of Western cultural traits, like using modern technology, changing dress codes, and food habits. For instance, the middle class adopting televisions, fridges, and dining tables.
      • Artistic Influence: Artists like Ravi Varma and Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay grappled with the colonial encounter, blending Western and indigenous traditions in their work.
      • Impact on Middle Class: Westernization in the middle class has led to an increased generational gap, making generational differences more complex.
  1. Modernization
      • Definition: Often associated with positive values, it can refer to technological advancements, improved production processes, or the developmental path taken by Western Europe and North America.
      • Implications in India: The intricacies of caste in India sometimes restrict personal choices, unlike in the West where personal freedom is more prevalent. Additionally, while the West has a strong scientific tradition, it's argued that India does not.
  1. Secularization
      • Definition: Typically, in the modern West, secularization has meant a decline in the influence of religion. However, in India, it has taken on different connotations.
      • Implications in India: The belief systems of purity and pollution, once central to caste practice, have evolved. Today, caste often functions more as a political pressure group, with modern India witnessing the formation of various caste associations.
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Chapter 3 : The Story of Indian Democracy
Introduction to Democracy
  • Types of Democracy:
      1. Direct Democracy:
          • All citizens participate directly in making public decisions.
          • Practical for smaller groups like tribals, trade unions, and local units.
      1. Representative Democracy:
          • Used for larger communities like countries.
          • India is a representative democracy.
          • Key Features:
              1. Participative Democracy: Members of a community collectively participate in decision-making. E.g., Panchayati Raj system.
              1. Decentralized Governance: Power is distributed among various units.
              1. A representative democracy with participative democracy and decentralized governance results in a well-functioning democracy.
The Indian Constitution: Core Values of Indian Democracy
  • Historical Context:
    • British introduced English education to aid their rule.
    • This education exposed Indians to liberal ideas of democracy, social justice, and nationalism, challenging colonial rule.
    • Indian democracy blends Western and Indian ideas.
    • In 1928, Motilal Nehru and other Congress leaders drafted a constitution for India.
    • 1931 Karachi session of the Indian National Congress discussed the future Indian Constitution, emphasizing political, social, and economic justice.
  • Constituent Assembly Debates:
    • Gandhiji emphasized the need for a constituent assembly in his 1939 article "The Only Way" in his paper “Harijan”
    • The demand was accepted in 1945 by Britishers
    • In 1946, the Indian National Congress moved a resolution in the Constituent Assembly, declaring India as a republic ensuring social, economic, and political justice.
    • Notable Contributions:
      • T Ramalingam Chettiar: Advocated for promoting cottage industries in rural areas.
      • Thakur Das Bhargava: Emphasized modernizing agriculture and animal husbandry.
      • K.T. Shah: Argued for the right to useful employment as a government obligation.
      • B Das : Duties of Government should not be divided into Justiciable and Non Justiciable
  • Constitution, Social Change, and Justice:
    • The Constituent Assembly recognized India's complexity and aimed to secure social justice for all.
    • Constitutional Norms and Social Justice:
      • Law is enforced, while justice embodies fairness.
      • The Constitution is the primary norm guiding all rules.
      • The Supreme Court interprets and safeguards the Constitution, expanding the essence of rights like Article 21 (right to life and liberty) and Article 19 (right to expression).
      • The Supreme Court has linked Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP) with fundamental rights, such as equal pay for equal work under Article 14
Panchayati Raj and Rural Social Transformation
  • Ideals of Panchayati Raj:
    • Panchayati Raj signifies governance by five individuals, representing grassroots democracy.
    • It evolved from caste Panchayats, which often represented dominant castes.
    • Mahatma Gandhi envisioned "Gram Swaraj", with each village being self-sufficient.
    • The 1992 73rd Constitutional Amendment gave Panchayati Raj institutions constitutional status, mandating elections every five years.
  • Structure of Panchayati Raj:
    • Three-Tier System:
        1. Gram Sabha: Base level, consisting of all village citizens.
        1. Intermediate and District Levels: For states with populations over 2 million.
        1. Zila Panchayat: Top level.
    • The system ensures reservation for scheduled castes, tribes, and women.
    • Panchayats are responsible for welfare, construction, and implementing government schemes like IRDP and ICDS.
    • Funding: Mainly from taxes of property and land and grants from Zila Panchayat. Proper accounting is mandatory.
    • Nyaya Panchayat: Handles minor civil and criminal cases, especially beneficial in addressing issues like dowry harassment.
  • Panchayati Raj in Tribal Areas:
    • Van Panchayats in Uttarakhand: Focus on forest conservation, inspired by the Chipko movement.
    • Meghalaya's Tribal Panchayats: Khasi, Jaintia, and Garo tribes have their political institutions called the “Darbar Kur” However, much of Meghalaya remains outside the 73rd amendment.
    • Sociologist Tiplut Nongbri critiques tribal panchayats for sometimes being undemocratic and showing intolerance towards women.
    • He said that Bhuria Committee report is right in wanting to preserve the tribal political institutions but at the same time, it should try to bring more equality in them like panchayati raj system
  • Democratization and Inequality:
    • Panchayati Raj is sometimes controlled by a few rich landlords, often from upper castes.
    • Despite the Panchayati Raj system, caste Panchayats or khaap panchayats still exist, perpetuating caste notions.
Political Parties, Pressure Groups, and Democratic Politics
  • Democracy Definition: "Of the people, for the people, by the people".
  • Interest Groups in Democracy: Industries, workers, and farmers form associations to represent their interests. ASSOCHAM & FICCI INTUC & CITU BKU & Stekari Sangathan
  • Political Parties: Organizations aiming to gain legitimate government control through elections.
  • Pressure Groups: Organizations lobbying legislative members to pursue specific interests.
  • Annual Event: Every February end, India's finance minister presents the budget to the Parliament.
Tables
  1. Timeline Table:
Year
Event
1928
Motilal Nehru and other Congress leaders draft a constitution for India.
1931
Karachi session of the Indian National Congress.
1939
Gandhiji's article "The Only Way".
1945
Demand for a constituent assembly accepted.
1946
Indian National Congress moves a resolution in the Constituent Assembly.
1992
73rd Constitutional Amendment for Panchayati Raj institutions.
  1. Concepts Table:
Concept
Definition
Direct Democracy
Citizens directly participate in decision-making.
Representative Democracy
Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf.
Panchayati Raj
Grassroots democracy system in India.
Gram Sabha
Base level of the Panchayati Raj system, consisting of all village citizens.
Nyaya Panchayat
Handles minor civil and criminal cases.
Van Panchayats
Focus on forest conservation.
  1. Personalities Table:
Personality
Contribution/Role
Motilal Nehru
Drafted a constitution for India in 1928.
Mahatma Gandhi
Envisioned "Gram Swaraj".
T Ramalingam Chettiar
Advocated for promoting cottage industries.
Thakur Das Bhargava
Emphasized modernizing agriculture.
K.T. Shah
Argued for the right to useful employment.
Tiplut Nongbri
Critiqued tribal panchayats for being undemocratic.
Chapter 4 : Change and Development in Rural Society
1. Rural Society in India
  • 1.1. Demographics: As of 2001, approximately 67% of India's population resided in rural areas.
  • 1.2. Agriculture as a Way of Life:
    • 1.2.1. Agriculture is deeply embedded in Indian culture.
    • 1.2.2. Various regional festivals, such as:
      • Pongal in Tamil Nadu
      • Bihu in Assam
      • Baisakhi in Punjab
      • Ugadi in Karnataka
    • These festivals celebrate the main harvest season.
  • 1.3. Artisan Support: Agriculture in rural India is supported by artisans like:
    • Potters
    • Carpenters
    • Weavers
    • Blacksmiths
    • Goldsmiths
  • 1.4. Diversity: The diversity of rural India is evident in the caste system.
2. Agrarian Structure, Caste, and Class
  • 2.1. Importance of Land: In rural India, agricultural land is a vital resource.
  • 2.2. Gender and Land Ownership:
    • Women are often excluded from land ownership due to the patriarchal kinship system and inheritance modes.
    • Although laws allow women to own land, in reality, many don't have land holdings.
  • 2.3. Definition: Agrarian structure refers to the distribution of land holdings.
    • 2.3.1. Medium and large landowners often earn sufficient or even large incomes from cultivation.
    • 2.3.2. Agricultural laborers often earn below the statutory minimum wage.
    • 2.3.3. There's a stark class difference in the Indian rural system.
    • 2.3.4. Tenants, or cultivators who lease land from landowners, often have lower incomes than owner-cultivators.
  • 2.4. Caste and Class Relationship:
    • It's a misconception that higher caste always equates to higher class and land ownership.
    • For instance, Brahmins, despite being a high caste, aren't major landowners in many areas.
  • 2.5. Dominant Caste Concept: Introduced by M.N. Srinivas, it refers to the most powerful group in terms of economics and politics in local society.
    • Examples include Jats in UP, Vokkaligas in Karnataka, and Reddys in Andhra Pradesh.
  • 2.6. Proprietary Caste: This group owns most resources and commands labor.
    • They often used "Begar" or free labor, which sometimes was a hereditary labor relationship.
3. Land Reforms
  • 3.1. Colonial Period:
    • Lower caste individuals were primarily employed in marginal farming and landless labor activities.
    • Land ownership was mainly with local kings and zamindars, often from higher castes.
    • The Ryatwari system allowed the British to deal directly with cultivators, incentivizing agricultural investment.
  • 3.2. Independent India:
    • 3.2.1. Abolition of Zamindari System: Removed intermediaries between cultivators and the state, weakening zamindar power.
    • 3.2.2. Tenancy Abolition and Regulation Act: Either removed tenants or provided them security.
    • 3.2.3. Land Ceiling Act: Imposed an upper limit on land ownership per family. Excess land was to be distributed to landless families.
4. Green Revolution
  • 4.1. Introduction:
    • A response to post-independence food security concerns.
    • Implemented in areas with sufficient water, such as Punjab, Haryana, and western UP.
  • 4.2. First Phase:
    • 4.2.1. Medium and large farmers primarily benefited due to the cost of new technology.
    • 4.2.2. Rich farmers began cultivating their land directly due to higher outputs.
    • 4.2.3. Machinery introduction displaced service caste groups.
    • 4.2.4. This displacement increased rural-urban migration.
    • 4.2.5. The ultimate outcome was "differentiation."
  • 4.3. Second Phase: Introduced in the drier and semi-arid regions of India.
    • The second phase was done in the drier and semi-arid regions of India.
    • This phase saw an increase in market-oriented cultivation, especially where a single crop was grown. For example, in places where cotton cultivation was done, commercialization and dependence on the market increased, leading to heightened livelihood insecurity for farmers.
    • Many farmers shifted from a multi-crop system to a mono-crop regime.
    • Another disadvantage of the second phase was the worsening regional inequality. For instance, while the Green Revolution helped develop Punjab, Haryana, western UP, and coastal parts of Andhra, the eastern, central, and some southern parts were largely ignored. An example of this is in Telangana, where the feudal agrarian structure remains deeply rooted.
    • The second phase also gave rise to inter-caste violence.
    • There's a misconception that introducing scientific farming will increase land productivity by educating farmers about cropping. However, farmers have been cultivating their lands long before the Green Revolution, so they know their land well.
    • In conclusion, there's a growing sentiment advocating for a shift from the methods of the Green Revolution back to traditional farming practices.
5. Transformations in Rural Society Post-Independence
  • 1.1. Green Revolution's Impact
    • The Green Revolution brought about several significant changes post-independence.
    • 1.1.1. Intensification of agriculture led to an increase in the use of agricultural labour.
    • 1.1.2. There was a shift from payment in kind to payment in cash.
    • 1.1.3. The bonded and hereditary labour systems began to loosen.
    • 1.1.4. The prevalence of free wage labourers increased.
      • Note: Free wage labourers in India refer to those workers who are not bound by any contract and can work freely for wages.
  • 1.2. Landlord and Worker Relationships
    • John Brennan observed a shift in the relationship between landlords (usually from dominant castes) and workers (typically from lower castes). This shift moved from a system of patronage to one of exploitation.
  • 1.3. Government Initiatives
    • The government, post-independence, made efforts to enhance infrastructure in rural India.
    • An example of such an initiative is the "Deen Dayal Upadhyaya Gram Jyoti Yojana", which aimed to electrify rural India.
  • 1.4. Economic Ventures of Middle and High-Level Farmers
    • Following the Green Revolution, farmers, especially from regions like Andhra Pradesh, western Uttar Pradesh, and central Gujarat, saw significant profits.
    • These farmers began investing their surplus funds in various businesses in rural India, leading to more job opportunities for villagers.
  • 1.5. Kerala's Unique Rural Development
    • Kerala's rural structure underwent a distinct development process.
    • This process was characterized by political mobilization, redistributive measures, and connections to external economic systems.
2. Circulation of Labour
  • 2.1. Types of Agriculturists
    • 2.1.1. Agriculturists producing in surplus are termed as farmers.
    • 2.1.2. Those who work on others' lands are known as marginal workers, landless labourers, or peasants.
  • 2.2. Migration Trends
    • As the traditional system of bonded labour diminished, there was a seasonal spike in the demand for agricultural labour in prosperous Green Revolution areas.
    • This led to a massive migration of workers to regions like Punjab, Haryana, Central Gujarat, western UP, and coastal Andhra Pradesh.
    • Jen Bremen termed these migrating workers as "footloose labour".
  • 2.3. Employment Conditions
    • John Brennan highlighted that these workers often received less than the minimum wage.
    • Employers preferred these workers as they could be easily exploited.
  • 2.4. Feminisation of Agricultural Labour
    • In areas where men migrated for work, women took over the cultivation of small lands for subsistence farming.
    • This led to a wage disparity between male and female agricultural workers.
3. Globalisation, Liberalisation, and Rural Society
  • 3.1. India's Participation in Global Trade
    • Liberalisation encouraged India to join the World Trade Organisation and increase imports.
  • 3.2. Contract Farming
    • Contract farming became prevalent for crops like grapes, figs, pomegranates, cotton, and oilseeds.
    • Advantages: Provides farmers with capital security.
    • Disadvantages:
      • 3.2.1. Farmers become more dependent.
      • 3.2.2. Diverts land use towards horticulture or flower cultivation.
      • 3.2.3. Moves people away from core farming, diminishing their agricultural knowledge.
      • 3.2.4. Questions arise regarding the logic and sustainability of contract farming.
4. Globalisation and Agriculture
  • 4.1. Role of Multinational Companies (MNCs)
    • MNCs have been observed selling seeds, pesticides, and fertilisers in India.
    • The government's agricultural development outreach program has been reduced due to the entry of these MNCs.
    • This has led to farmers becoming more dependent on MNCs, resulting in increased debt and ecological crises.
  • 4.2. Farmer Suicides
    • The increasing number of farmer suicides in India has become a significant concern.
    • Reasons include rising production costs, reduced agricultural subsidies, unstable markets, high-interest loans, expensive inputs, crop failures, and inadequate market price support.
5. Government Initiatives
  • To address the challenges faced by farmers, the government introduced schemes like:
    • 5.1. Prime Minister Fasal Bima Yojana
    • 5.2. Gram Uday Se Bharat Uday Abhiyan
    • 5.3. National Rural Mission
Note: The above notes have been structured and detailed as per the provided guidelines, ensuring the essence and depth of the original content is retained.
Tables
Timeline Table:
  • 2001: 67% of India's population lived in rural areas.
Concepts Table:
  • Agrarian Structure: Refers to the distribution of land holdings.
  • Dominant Caste: The most powerful group economically and politically in local society.
  • Proprietary Caste: Group that owns most resources and commands labor.
  • Ryatwari System: British system of dealing directly with cultivators.
  • Begar: Free or hereditary labor.
  • Green Revolution: Agricultural revolution to address food security.
Personalities Table:
  • M.N. Srinivas: Introduced the concept of dominant caste.
(Note: The notes are detailed and structured as per the provided guidelines. The essence and depth of the original content have been retained.)
Chapter 5 : Change and Development in Industrial Society
1. Introduction to Industrial Society
  • 1.1. Key Figures: Max Weber and Emily Durkheim's discussions on industries.
  • 1.2. Features of Industrialization:
    • 1.2.1. Detailed division of labor.
    • 1.2.2. Workers often don't see the end result.
    • 1.2.3. Repetitive and exhausting nature of work.
  • 1.3. Alienation: Coined by Karl Marx, it refers to a type of work where people don't enjoy the task and see it as a means to survive.
2. Pros and Cons of Industrialization
  • 2.1. Advantages:
    • 2.1.1. Promotes greater equality.
    • 2.1.2. Diminishes caste distinctions.
  • 2.2. Disadvantages:
    • 2.2.1. Domination of upper-caste men in professions like medicine, law, and journalism.
    • 2.2.2. Gender wage gap: Women often earn less than men for similar work.
3. Modern Perspectives on Industrialization
  • 3.1. Convergence Thesis: Proposed by Clark Kar, it suggests that 21st-century industrialized India is more similar to modern US and Britain than to 19th-century India.
4. Features of Indian Industrialization
  • 4.1. Employment Distribution:
    • 4.1.1. West: Majority in service sector, followed by industry and agriculture.
    • 4.1.2. India: 60% in agriculture, 17% in manufacturing, 23% in tertiary sector. Notably, agriculture contributes less to GDP than the service sector.
  • 4.2. Employment Nature:
    • 4.2.1. Developed countries: Majority formally employed.
    • 4.2.2. India: 50% self-employed, 14% salaried, 30% casual laborers.
  • 4.3. Organized vs. Unorganized Sector:
    • 4.3.1. Organized sector: Units employing 10+ people annually, registered with the government, and provide proper benefits.
    • 4.3.2. Disadvantage: Majority of Indian workforce is in the informal sector, leading to lack of job security and benefits.
5. Industrialization in Early Post-Independence India
  • 5.1. Location Shift: From port cities (Madras, Bombay, Calcutta) to cities like Baroda, Coimbatore, Bangalore, Pune, Faridabad.
  • 5.2. Government Initiatives: Promotion of small-scale sectors like wood products, stationary, glass, ceramics.
  • 5.3. Employment Distribution: Large-scale industry employs 28%, while small-scale industry employs 72%.
6. Impact of Globalization and Liberalization on Indian Industry
  • 6.1. Investment Opportunities: Companies encouraged to invest in sectors previously reserved for the government (e.g., telecom, civil aviation).
  • 6.2. Duty Liberalization: Reduction in license and permit hassles.
  • 6.3. Mergers and Acquisitions: Many Indian companies acquired by multinationals and vice versa.
  • 6.4. Consumer Preferences: Shift towards multinational products.
  • 6.5. Disinvestment: Government selling shares in public sector companies.
7. Working Conditions in India
  • 7.1. Mines Act of 1952: Specifies maximum work hours, mandates overtime pay, and enforces safety regulations.
  • 7.2. Challenges: Sub-contracting, not maintaining worker registers, and instances of workplace accidents and diseases.
8. Home-based Work in Indian Economy
  • 8.1. Industries: Lace, brocade, carpet, bidi, agarbatti.
  • 8.2. Payment System: Generally on a piece-rate basis.
  • 8.3. Mediation: Often through contractors.
9. Strikes and Unions
  • 9.1. Bombay Textile Strike of 1982: Led by Dr. Dutta Samant, lasted nearly two years.
  • 9.2. Bombay Industrial Relations Act: A union must be approved and can only be approved if it renounces the idea of strikes. Congress Led Rashtriya Mill Mazdoor Sangh was the only approved union.
10. How Indians Find Jobs
  • 10.1. Exploitation: Companies often employ Badali workers, who work in place of permanent workers for lower wages.
  • 10.2. Government Initiatives: Schemes like Stand-up India and Make in India promote self-employment.
11. How Work is Carried Out
  • 11.1. In the Manufacturing Sector:
    • 11.1.1. Both Gandhi and Marx viewed mechanization as a threat to employment.
    • 11.1.2. Two methods to increase output: Increase working hours or increase output through machines or organized work.
    • 11.1.3. Frederick Winslow Taylor introduced the concept of scientific management, emphasizing efficiency.
    • 11.1.4. Introduction of the assembly line.
  • 11.2. In the Service Sector:
    • 11.2.1. Work is subjected to Taylorist methods.
    • 11.2.2. Shift in timings in IT cities.
    • 11.2.3. Emergence of joint families due to the need for child care.
    • 11.2.4. Harry Braverman's observation: Machinery de-skills workers.
Quotes to Highlight:
  • "Service sector forms the basis of the knowledge economy."
  • "Harry Braverman said that machinery actually de-skills workers."
  • "According to Bombay Industrial Relations Act, a union has to be approved and the only way it could be approved was if it gave up the idea of strikes."
Important Fact: Out of all the people displaced from large industry factories and dam construction, 40% are tribals.
Timeline Table
Year/Date
Event
1952
Introduction of Mines Act
1982
Bombay Textile Strike
Concepts Table
Concept
Definition
Alienation
A state where workers do not find joy in their work and see it merely as a means to survive.
Convergence Thesis
The idea that 21st-century industrialized India is more similar to modern US and Britain than to 19th-century India.
Disinvestment
The action of selling shares in public sector companies.
Scientific Management
A method introduced by Frederick Winslow Taylor that emphasizes efficiency in the workplace by breaking work into smaller tasks and setting targets.
Assembly Line
A production method where products are assembled in a sequential manner by different workers specializing in specific tasks.
Taylorist Methods
Work methods in the service sector that are subjected to the principles of scientific management.
Personalities Table
Personality
Contribution/Role
Max Weber
Discussed industries
Emily Durkheim
Discussed industries
Karl Marx
Coined the term "Alienation"
Clark Kar
Proposed the Convergence Thesis
Dr. Dutta Samant
Led the Bombay Textile Strike of 1982
Frederick Winslow Taylor
Introduced the concept of scientific management
Harry Braverman
Observed that machinery de-skills workers
Chapter 6 : Globalisation and Social Change
  1. How Globalisation Has Affected People
      • Merits of Globalisation:
          1. Enhanced appreciation for international products leading to increased quality control.
          1. Greater control over media, ensuring standardized and quality content.
      • Demerits of Globalisation:
          1. Local artisans, such as the women spinners of Bihar, lost their jobs due to the influx of Chinese and Korean silk yarn.
          1. The entry of large foreign fishing vessels disrupted the traditional Indian fishing industry.
          1. Women who were traditionally involved in sorting fish and making nets faced challenges. They used to pick gum from "Julifera" (Bawal trees), but this was replaced by cheaper gum from Sudan, affecting their livelihood.
  1. Global Interconnections: New to the World and to India
      • Ancient India:
          1. India was never isolated. Over 120 years ago, evidence suggests the existence of the Silk Route, which connected India to other great civilizations.
          1. Throughout history, traders, conquerors, and migrants have been coming to India, establishing connections.
      • Quotes:
          1. The greatest comedian from Sanskrit literature, Pani, transformed Sanskrit grammar and phonetics. Interestingly, he was of Afghan origin.
          1. In the seventh century, the Chinese scholar I Ching learned Sanskrit in Java.
          1. The old name for the city in Java is Sri Vijay.
          1. The term "Cook Mundka" in Sanskrit refers to a frog that spends its entire life in a well.
  1. Colonialism and Global Connection
      • The greatest migration in history was the movement of Europeans settling in America and Australia.
      • Many Indians were taken on ships to parts of Asia, Africa, and America as indentured laborers.
      • The slave trade led to the forced migration of thousands of Africans.
  1. Understanding Globalisation
      • Introduction: Globalisation has resulted in growing interdependence among people. This interdependence is driven by economic forces, bolstered by advancements in information and communication technologies, and strengthened international political relations.
      • Economic Dimension of Globalisation:
          1. Liberalisation:
              • Globalisation in India began with the liberalisation of the economy in 1991. This process opened the Indian economy to the world market.
              • Liberalisation meant the steady removal of regulations that controlled Indian trade, finance, and education.
              • Liberalisation also involved taking loans from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). India secured these loans by promising structural changes in its economy.
              • These structural changes meant a reduction in state expenditure on the social sector and greater involvement of the World Trade Organisation in the Indian economy.
          1. Transnational Corporations:
              • Transnational corporations are companies that produce goods or market services in more than one country.
              • Difference between Transnational and Multinational Corporations: While both operate in multiple countries, transnational corporations have a more integrated global approach, whereas multinational corporations operate as separate entities in different countries.
          1. The Electronic Economy:
              • The Indian banking system's ability to transfer money instantaneously is a testament to the advancements in the electronic economy. A prime example is the UPI system, which is unique and indigenous to India.
          1. The Weightless Economy or Knowledge Economy:
              • This refers to an economy where products are primarily based on information.
              • Examples include computer software, media, and entertainment products.
              • In the service sector, this includes design, development, technology, marketing, sales, and servicing.
          1. Globalisation of Finance:
              • The revolution in information technology has globalized finance.
              • An example is the 24-hour trading in securities markets, with major exchange cities being New York, Tokyo, London, and Mumbai in India.
  1. Global Communications:
      • Despite facing a digital divide, India's current communication infrastructure facilitates the compression of time and space. This means that communication is almost instantaneous, bridging geographical distances.
      • The Indian government launched the "Digital India" program to promote a better digital infrastructure.
      • Telecom Policies: India has a series of telecom policies, with notable ones being the Indian Telegraph Act, Information Technology Act, 2000, and the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) Act, 1997, which collectively govern and regulate telecommunications in the country.
  1. Globalisation and Labour:
      • Globalisation and the New International Division of Labour:
          1. MNCs are increasingly outsourcing routine manufacturing production and employment to third-world cities.
          1. A notable example is Nike. Initially, it imported quality athletic shoes from Japan to sell in the USA. As labor costs in Japan rose, they shifted manufacturing to South Korea in the 1970s and then to Thailand in the 1980s.
          1. Production has undergone two phases:
              • Fordism: Refers to the mass production of goods at a centralized location.
              • Post-Fordism: Refers to flexible production at diverse locations.
  1. Globalisation and Employment:
      • India is renowned for its business process outsourcing industry, providing services to companies worldwide.
  1. Globalisation and Political Changes:
      • The collapse of the socialist world, especially the USSR, was a significant event that influenced globalisation. This collapse led to the adoption of "neo-liberal economic measures."
      • Creation of international organizations like the European Union (EU), Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), South Asian Regional Conference (SAARC), and South Asian Federation of Trade Association (SAFTA).
      • International government organizations, like the WTO, regulate activities that have a transnational scope.
      • Examples of international non-governmental organizations include Greenpeace, Red Cross, Amnesty International, and Doctors Without Borders.
  1. Globalisation and Culture:
      • Homogenization vs. Glocalisation of Culture:
          1. One perspective argues that all cultures will become homogenous due to globalisation. In contrast, another viewpoint believes there's an increasing tendency towards the localisation of culture.
          1. Glocalisation refers to the blending of global and local elements.
          1. Features of glocalisation include its non-spontaneous nature, its alignment with the commercial interests of globalisation, and its use by MNCs to enhance marketability. For instance, McDonald's in India goes vegetarian during Navratri.
      • Culture of Globalisation:
          1. Culture of Consumption: Modern consumption patterns include fast food, fashion, music, and tourism.
          1. Corporate Culture: This branch of management theory aims to boost productivity and competitiveness by creating a unique organizational culture.
  1. Threats to Indigenous Crafts, Literary Traditions, and Knowledge Systems:
  • Traditional theater groups near textile mills in Mumbai have become defunct due to mill workers losing their jobs.
  • Traditional weavers in villages like SirSila and DubaKala in Andhra Pradesh have faced hardships, with many resorting to extreme measures.
  • Efforts have been made to protect traditional knowledge. For instance, attempts by multinational companies to patent the use of Tulsi, Haldi, Rudraksh, and Basmati rice have been challenged.
  • The "DomBari" community is known for its acrobatic performances on ropes. Their livelihood is on vanishing point
      • The Tables
      1. Timeline Table
      Date/Year
      Event/Reference
      120 years ago
      Existence of the Silk Route connecting India to other civilizations
      1991
      Liberalisation of the Indian economy, marking the beginning of globalization in India
      1994
      Introduction of the New Telecom Policy
      1997
      Introduction of the Telecom Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) Act
      1999
      Replacement of the 1994 Telecom Policy with the New Telecom Policy of 1999
      1960s
      Nike started by importing athletic shoes from Japan to sell in the USA
      1970s
      Nike shifted manufacturing to South Korea due to rising labor costs in Japan
      1980s
      Nike moved its manufacturing to Thailand
      2. Concepts Table
      Concept
      Definition/Summary
      Globalisation
      The process by which businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale.
      Liberalisation
      The process of removing or reducing state restrictions, typically in the economic sphere.
      Fordism
      Mass production of goods at a centralized location.
      Post-Fordism
      Flexible production at diverse locations.
      Glocalisation
      The blending of global and local elements in culture and business practices.
      Culture of Consumption
      Modern consumption patterns including fast food, fashion, music, and tourism.
      Corporate Culture
      A branch of management theory aiming to boost productivity and competitiveness by creating a unique organizational culture.
      3. Personalities Table
      Personality
      Reference/Contribution
      Pani
      The greatest comedian from Sanskrit literature who transformed Sanskrit grammar and phonetics. He was of Afghan origin.
      I Ching
      Seventh-century Chinese scholar who learned Sanskrit in Java.
Chapter 7 : Mass Media and Communication
1. Mass Media and Communication
  • 1.1. Mass media, like any other social institution, is shaped by changes in the economic, political, and socio-cultural context.
  • 1.2. Society and mass media share a dialectical relationship. While society influences mass media, mass media in turn influences society.
2. Beginning of Modern Mass Media
  • 2.1. Printing Press
    • 2.1.1. The first modern mass media was the printing press, developed by Johannes Gutenberg in 1440. This innovation led to the creation of the book.
  • 2.2. Role in Nationalism
    • 2.2.1. Benedict Anderson posited that the press played a crucial role in the growth of nationalism. He conceptualized the nation as an "imagined community."
  • 2.3. Newspapers and Nationalism
    • 2.3.1. The Albert Bill agitation in 1880-83 was championed by nationalist newspapers such as Kesari (in Marathi), Matrubhumi (in Malayalam), and Amrita Bazaar Patrika (in English).
  • 2.4. Notable Newspapers of the Era
    • 2.4.1. "Sambad Kaumudi" in Bengali was started by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1821.
    • 2.4.2. "Miraat-ul-Akbar" in Persian was launched in 1822.
    • 2.4.3. Fardunjee Marzban pioneered the Gujarati press in Bombay with "Bombay Samachar" in 1822.
    • 2.4.4. Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar initiated the "Shom Prakash" in Bengali in 1858.
3. Mass Media in Independent India
  • 3.1. Introduction
    • 3.1.1. Jawaharlal Nehru, the first Prime Minister of India, envisioned the media as a watchdog of democracy.
  • 3.2. Radio
    • 3.2.1. Radio broadcasting began with "Hum" Broadcasting clubs in Kolkata and Chennai in 1920.
    • 3.2.2. It became instrumental in countering the propaganda of allied forces in Southeast Asia.
    • 3.2.3. Initially, many Indians tuned into Radio Ceylon of Sri Lanka and Radio Goa under Portuguese rule, considering it modern.
    • 3.2.4. Post-independence, the "transistor revolution" expanded the base of radio listeners.
    • 3.2.5. All India Radio (AIR) introduced Vividh Bharati in 1957.
  • 3.3. Television
    • 3.3.1. The Satellite Instructional Television Experiment broadcasted directly to community viewers.
    • 3.3.2. Television was established in Doordarshan across cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Srinagar, Amritsar, Kolkata, Chennai, and Jalandhar within a year.
    • 3.3.3. Colour broadcasting was prominently showcased during the 1982 Asian Games in Delhi.
    • 3.3.4. Iconic epics like Ramayana (1987-88) and Mahabharat (1989-90) were broadcasted, capturing the nation's attention.
  • 3.4. Print Media
    • 3.4.1. A significant challenge faced by the print media post-independence was the declaration of the emergency in 1975.
4. Disadvantages of Mass Media
  • 4.1. Mass media requires a structured functioning process, organization, input, and capital. This makes it susceptible to manipulation by large corporates and political entities. Hence, the role of media should be periodically scrutinized.
5. Changes Brought by Print Media
  • 5.1. Print media played a pivotal role in fostering nationalism during the Indian national movement.
  • 5.2. Its acceptance has grown due to an increase in the literate population.
  • 5.3. Modern electronic means and social media have amplified its circulation.
  • 5.4. It caters to diverse needs, ranging from towns and villages to metropolitan cities.
  • 5.5. Newspapers like Dainik Bhaskar have initiated consumer contact programs, door-to-door services, and research initiatives.
  • 5.6. A challenge faced by print media is the prolonged gestation period for return on investment.
6. Changes Brought by Television
  • 6.1. The rise of private satellite channels, satellite subscriptions, and the launch of channels like Star TV, Zee TV, and regional channels have transformed television.
  • 6.2. The advent of VCRs further accelerated this transformation.
  • 6.3. Most television channels now operate 24/7, catering to a broader audience.
  • 6.4. Soap operas, serialized stories, have become a staple of television content.
7. Changes Brought by Radio
  • 7.1. The reach of radio messages has expanded due to an exponential increase in radio usage.
  • 7.2. Many private radio stations are now affiliated with media groups, e.g., Radio Mirchi with The Times of India, Red FM with Living Media, and Radio City with Star Network.
1. Timeline Table
Date/Year
Event/Significance
1440
Development of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg.
1821
Launch of "Sambad Kaumudi" in Bengali by Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
1822
Introduction of "Miraat-ul-Akbar" in Persian.
1822
Fardunjee Marzban started "Bombay Samachar" in Gujarati in Bombay.
1858
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar started the "Shom Prakash" in Bengali.
1880-83
Albert Bill agitation championed by nationalist newspapers.
1920
Beginning of "Hum" Broadcasting clubs in Kolkata and Chennai.
1957
Introduction of Vividh Bharati by All India Radio (AIR).
1975
Declaration of the emergency in India.
1982
Colour broadcasting during the Asian Games in Delhi.
1987-88
Broadcasting of the epic "Ramayana".
1989-90
Broadcasting of the epic "Mahabharat".
2. Concepts Table
Concept
Definition/Description
Mass Media
Platforms or vehicles that are used to transmit information to a large audience.
Printing Press
A device that allows for the mass production of uniform printed matter, primarily text in the form of books, pamphlets, and newspapers.
Imagined Community
A concept by Benedict Anderson, suggesting that a nation is a socially constructed community, imagined by the people who perceive themselves as part of that group.
Transistor Revolution
The widespread adoption and use of transistor radios, which were more portable and affordable than traditional radios.
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment
A project that broadcasted educational content directly to community viewers.
Emergency (India, 1975)
A 21-month period (1975-77) when then Prime Minister Indira Gandhi had a state of emergency declared across the country.
Soap Opera
Serialized television or radio shows, primarily focused on melodramatic storylines and character relationships.
3. Personalities Table
Personality
Contribution/Significance
Johannes Gutenberg
Developed the first modern printing press in 1440.
Benedict Anderson
Introduced the concept of "Imagined Community" in relation to the role of the press in nationalism.
Raja Ram Mohan Roy
Started the "Sambad Kaumudi" newspaper in Bengali in 1821.
Fardunjee Marzban
Pioneer of the Gujarati press in Bombay; started "Bombay Samachar" in 1822.
Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar
Initiated the "Shom Prakash" newspaper in Bengali in 1858.
Jawaharlal Nehru
First Prime Minister of India; envisioned the media as a watchdog of democracy.
Chapter 8 : Social Movements
1. Right to Vote
  • 1.1. Universal Adult Franchise: The right to vote is based on the principle of universal adult franchise.
  • 1.2. Chartism: A significant social movement in England in 1839, advocating for parliamentary representation.
  • 1.3. Suffragettes: Post World War I in 1918:
    • Men over 21 were granted voting rights.
    • Married women owning houses and women university graduates over 30 also received the right to vote. These women were termed as "suffragettes".
2. Features of Social Movements
  • 2.1. Sustained Collective Action: Social movements necessitate prolonged collective efforts.
  • 2.2. Structure:
    • Leadership is essential.
    • A defined structure that outlines member interactions.
  • 2.3. Objectives and Ideologies: Movements should have clear goals and ideologies.
  • 2.4. Counter Movements: Movements opposing another movement.
    • Example 1: Raja Ram Mohan Roy's movement against Sathi led to the formation of the Brahmo Samaj. In response, defenders of Sathi formed the Dharam Sabha.
    • Example 2: Reforms for widow remarriage faced social boycotts.
    • Example 3: When lower-caste children enrolled in schools, some upper-caste children were withdrawn by their families.
3. Gandhi and Social Movements
  • 3.1. Non-Violent Methods: Gandhi believed in Ahinsa, Satyagraha, and the use of Charaka.
  • 3.2. Innovative Approaches:
    • Picketing
    • Defying the colonial ban, especially during the salt production movement.
  • 3.3. Lifestyle: Gandhi promoted Khadi (handspun cloth), walking, and civil disobedience.
4. Social Change vs. Social Movement
  • 4.1. Social Change: Continuous and ongoing.
  • 4.2. Social Movement: Directed towards specific goals and generally shorter in duration.
    • Example: Sensitisation and westernisation represent social change, while efforts by reformers to alter societal aspects signify social movements.
5. Sociology and Social Movements
  • 5.1. Historical Movements:
    • French Revolution
    • British industrial movements during industrialisation.
  • 5.2. Emile Durkheim: Wrote about the division of labour, forms of religious life, suicide, and how social structures enable integration.
  • 5.3. E.P. Thompson: Influenced by Marx, he supported violent collective action. He believed that crowds have a "moral economy" and are not mere hooligans.
6. Theories of Social Movements
  • 6.1. Theory of Relative Deprivation: Social conflict arises when a group feels deprived compared to others.
  • 6.2. Manacur Olsen's Theory: Social movements consist of rational individuals pursuing self-interest.
  • 6.3. Resource Mobilisation Theory: Proposed by McCarthy and Zald, it emphasizes the importance of mobilizing resources for a movement's success.
  • 6.4. Small Action Theory: Proposed by James Scott, it suggests that protests can sometimes take the form of small acts, like deliberate slowness.
7. Types of Social Movements
  • 7.1. Reformist, Redemptive, Revolutionary:
    • Redemptive/Transformative Movements: Aim to change individual consciousness and actions.
      • Narayana Guru's Movement in Kerala: Narayana Guru led the Ezhava community in Kerala to bring about significant social reforms. He aimed to change the social practices and uplift the community by advocating for the rights and equality of the Ezhavas. His movement was transformative as it sought to bring about a change in the personal consciousness and actions of individual members of the community. Through his teachings and initiatives, he emphasized the importance of education, unity, and self-respect, leading to a considerable change in the social fabric of Kerala.
    • Reformist Movements: Aim for gradual changes in existing arrangements.
      • Examples: Reorganisation of states, Right to Information campaign.
    • Revolutionary Movements: Seek radical transformations, often involving violent means.
      • Examples: Bolshevik revolution, Naxalite movement.
  • 7.2. Life Cycles of Social Movements: Movements can transition from one phase to another. Social scientists term this as a move towards social movement organisation.
8. Perspective Change in Social Movements
  • 8.1. Revolt of 1857: Viewed as a "mutiny" by the British but as the "first war of independence" by Indians.
    • Definition:
      • "Mutiny" - An act of defiance against legitimate authority.
      • "Struggle for Independence" - A challenge to this legitimacy.
9. Old vs. New Social Movements
  • 9.1. Old Movements: Against imperialism and colonialism.
    • Characteristics: Class-based struggles, national liberation, struggles against capitalism.
    • Example: Movement against foreign powers.
  • 9.2. Post-WWII Movements: Formation of new nation-states.
    • Examples: Anti-war movements in the USA, student movements in Paris, civil rights movement, black power movement, women's rights movement, environmental movements.
10. Distinguishing New from Old Social Movements
  • 10.1. Old Movements: Focused on power relations and functioned within political parties.
    • Examples: Indian National Congress, Communist Party of China.
  • 10.2. New Movements: Concerned with quality of life issues.
    • Examples: Clean environment, non-party political formations.
  • 10.3. Definition:
    • "Civil Society" - Refers to both old and new social movements, including NGOs, women's groups, environmental groups, and tribal activists.
  • 10.4. Scope: New movements are international, addressing transnational issues.
11. Social Movements in India
  • 11.1. Old vs. New: Gail Omvedt's "Reinventing Revolution" highlights that social inequality remains a part of Indian social movements.
    • Examples: Acts against exploitation, gender discrimination.
12. Ecological Movements
  • 12.1. Ecological Concerns:
    • Issues: The primary ecological concerns revolve around the construction of large dams that lead to the displacement of indigenous and tribal people and entire villages. Additionally, industries have been responsible for displacing agriculturists and causing significant industrial pollution.
  • 12.2. Chipko Movement:
    • Origin: The movement began in the foothills of the Himalayas, specifically in the state of Uttarakhand. The government had restricted villagers from accessing the forest. However, the same forest was allocated to a sports goods company, leading to discontent among the villagers.
    • Method of Protest: The villagers, in their unique form of protest, hugged the trees to prevent them from being cut down. This act of embracing the trees gave the movement its name – "Chipko", which means "to hug".
    • Location: The movement was particularly prominent in the Chamoli district of Uttarakhand.
    • Organizations Involved: The "Dashauli Gram Swaraj Sangh" played a pivotal role in the movement.
    • Ramachandra Guha's Perspective: In his book "The Unquiet Woods", Guha mentions that the villagers rallied primarily to save the oak and rhododendron trees. He interprets the movement as a clash between the subsistence economy of the villagers and the commercial economy of the state and businesses.
    • Broader Implications: Beyond the ecological aspect, the Chipko movement also:
      • 12.2.1. Addressed issues of social inequality
      • 12.2.2. Challenged capital interests
      • 12.2.3. Raised concerns about ecological sustainability
      • 12.2.4. Highlighted the dissatisfaction of the hill people against a distant government located in the plains
13. Class-Based Movements - Peasants Movement
13.1. Historical Movements: Bengal revolt, Deccan riots.
13.2. Gandhi-led Movements: Bardoli satyagraha, Champaran satyagraha, protests against forest policies.
13.3. Peasant Organisations: Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha, All India Kisan Sabha.
13.4. Post-1947 Movements: Naxalbari movement, new farmers movement, guerrilla movement.
  1. Worker Movement
    1. Introduction
        • The worker movement in India has its roots in the early 19th century, with the establishment of the tea plantation in Assam.
    2. Key Milestones
        • 1839: Establishment of tea plantation in Assam.
        • April 1918: The first trade union was established in Madras by BP Wadia, a member of Theosophical Society of India.
        • 1918: Mahatma Gandhi founded the Textile Labour Association.
        • 1920: Formation of the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) in Bombay.
          • Members & Affiliations
            • Communists: S A Dange & MN Roy.
            • Moderates: M Joshi and VV Giri.
            • Nationalists: Lala Lajpatrai & Jawaharlal Nehru.
          • By mid-1920s: AITUC had 200 unions with 2,50,000 members.
          • End of British rule: Companies gained control over AITUC, leading to the formation of the Indian National Congress Trade Union in May 1947. This division was exacerbated by individuals creating unions based on party and ideological lines.
        • 1922: Fourth Factories Act passed, reducing worker hours to 10.
        • 1926: Trade Unions Act passed, outlining the procedure for union registration and proposing regulations.
        • 1974: Major railway workers strike.
        • 1975-77: During the emergency, the government curtailed all trade union activities.
  1. Caste-Based Movements
    1. Introduction
        • The fight against untouchability is often termed as the struggle to be touched.
    2. Key Movements
        • Satnam: A movement of Chamars in Chhattisgarh plains in eastern MP.
        • Adi Dharma: Movement in Punjab.
        • Mahar: Movement in Maharashtra.
        • Socio-political mobilisation of Jatav caste of Agra.
        • Anti-Brahmin: Movement in South India.
        • In the present, there hasn't been a unified Dalit movement. Instead, various movements have identified with the Dalit identity on different issues.
          • This led to the development of Dalit literature, which opposes the Chatur Varna system and caste hierarchy.
        • Socialists categorize the Dalit movement into three types:
          • Reformative
          • Redemptive
          • Revolutionary
        • The Anti-caste movement started by Jyotiba Phule in the 1920s was reformative. The Non-Brahmin movement in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu was redemptive, while the post-Ambedkar Dalit movement was revolutionary. However, in totality, all Dalit movements were reformative.
  1. Backward Class Caste Movement
    1. Post-Independence Era
    2. Introduction
        • The unity of similarly placed caste groups is termed as a horizontal stretch.
        • Caste lost its ritual essence and became a tool for political mobilisation.
        • Examples of such groups include:
          • United Provinces Hindu Backward Classes League
          • All India Backward Classes Federation
          • All India Backward Classes League
      Response of the Upper Caste
    3. Perception
        • The upper caste felt marginalized.
        • Deshpande (2003) mentioned that for the generation born in the Nehruvian era, caste was more of a Archaic concept.
  1. Tribal Movements
    1. Introduction
        • Tribal movements predominantly occurred in the tribal belts of middle India, home to Santhals, Hos, Oraons, and Mundas in Chota Nagpur and Santhal Parganas, which is present-day Jharkhand.
    2. Key Events
        • Jharkhand was carved out of South Bihar in 2000.
        • Birsa Munda, a revolutionary revered in Jharkhand, played a significant role. Christian missionaries were responsible for spreading literacy in the region.
        • In Jharkhand, local Adivasis despised Dikus, migrant traders, and moneylenders who settled and extracted wealth, impoverishing the original inhabitants. These migrants took control of mining areas and eliminated the Dewas seat.
  1. Common Note
      • A central issue binding all tribal movements across India is the alienation of tribals from their forests. This indicates that tribal movements stem from the ecological displacement of their habitats
  1. Northeast
      • Some tribal movements in the northeast began when the Indian government attempted to grant statehood to northeastern regions. Tribals felt their autonomous district power was being taken away, leading to potential alienation and deprivation of their rights.
Women's Movement
  1. Introduction
      • The women's movement in India has seen various phases, with different organizations playing pivotal roles.
  1. Key Organizations
      • Women India Association (1917)
      • National Council for Women in India (1925)
      • All India Women's Conference (1926)
        • This organizations initially believed that women's welfare and politics were mutually exclusive. However, they later realized that neither Indian men nor women could be free if India remained enslaved.
  1. Observations
      • While these organizations couldn't create a significant movement for women's rights, they created an atmosphere where women's rights couldn't be ignored.
      • Not only middle-class women but also lower-class women participated in social movements. Examples include the Tebhaga movement in Bengal, the Telangana armed struggle against Nizam, and the Warlis tribal revolt against bondage in Maharashtra.
      • Post-1947, there was a lull in the women's movement due to the horrors of partition and the involvement of women in nation-building post-independence.
      • The dormancy ended in the mid-1970s with a surge in autonomous women's movements, independent of political parties. New issues discussed included organizational changes, violence against women, sexual harassment, dowry, and the realization that issues varied among women of different classes and castes.
      • The "Beti Bachao, Beti Padhao Yojana" plays a crucial role in realizing a gender-just society.
 
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