Limited access to education and lower wages compared to men.
Dual responsibility: work and domestic chores.
Voice and Representation
Formation of women's political clubs and newspapers.
Notable club: Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women.
Demands:
Equal political rights as men.
Right to vote, be elected to the Assembly, and hold political office.
Legislative Achievements
The constitution of 1791 deemed women as passive citizens.
Revolutionary government introduced progressive laws:
Compulsory schooling for girls.
Freedom from forced marriages.
Legal recognition of marriage as a freely entered contract.
Legalization of divorce for both genders.
Opportunities for job training, artistry, and business.
Repression during the Reign of Terror
The government ordered the closure of women's clubs.
Banned women’s political activities.
Arrests and executions of prominent women activists.
Continued Struggle for Rights
Women’s fight for voting rights and equal wages persisted globally.
International suffrage movement in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
1946: Women in France finally achieved the right to vote.
The Abolition of Slavery
Abolition of Slavery in French Colonies
Background
Colonies like Martinique, Guadeloupe, and San Domingo were pivotal for commodities like tobacco, indigo, sugar, and coffee.
European reluctance for distant work led to labor scarcity on plantations.
Triangular Slave Trade
Initiated in the 17th century.
Route: Europe → Africa → Americas.
French merchants bought slaves from African chieftains.
Slaves underwent a torturous three-month voyage across the Atlantic.
Sold to Caribbean plantation owners.
Economic Implications
Slave labor fulfilled European demand for specific commodities.
Port cities (e.g., Bordeaux, Nantes) prospered due to the slave trade.
Debates and Decisions
Minimal criticism of slavery in 18th-century France.
National Assembly debated rights for all French subjects, including colonial ones.
No decisive laws were passed due to apprehensions about business impacts.
1794: The Convention legislated the emancipation of all slaves in French colonies.
Reversals and Final Abolition
Napoleon reintroduced slavery a decade after its initial abolition.
Plantation owners equated their freedom with the right to enslave.
1848: Slavery was permanently abolished in French colonies.
The Revolution and Everyday Life
The Cultural and Political Impacts of the French Revolution
Censorship and Freedom of Expression
Pre-1789: All cultural activities, including books, newspapers, and plays, were under the strict control of the king's censors.
Post-1789: After the storming of the Bastille, censorship was abolished.
The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen recognized freedom of speech and expression as a natural right.
An explosion in the dissemination of newspapers, pamphlets, books, and printed pictures.
The press became a medium for expressing various perspectives and opposing views.
Cultural Outreach
Plays, songs, and festive processions emerged as popular mediums for common people to connect with revolutionary ideas.
These events presented abstract concepts like justice and liberty in accessible formats.
Napoleon's Reign
1804: Napoleon Bonaparte proclaimed himself Emperor of France.
Aimed at modernizing Europe.
Introduced progressive laws, emphasizing private property protection and a unified system of weights and measures.
Expansion: Conquered parts of Europe, placing his family members as rulers.
Public Perception: Initially seen as a liberator, but soon viewed as an invader.
Defeat: Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo in 1815.
Legacy of the French Revolution
Ideas of Liberty: These became the revolution's most significant legacy.
Ideas spread throughout Europe in the 19th century.
This led to the abolition of feudal systems.
Colonized regions transformed the concept of freedom into movements for sovereignty.
Influential Figures: People like Tipu Sultan and Rammohan Roy in different parts of the world resonated with the revolutionary ideas from France.
Additional Concepts
Cultural and Social Changes in Revolutionary France
Impact on Culture and Expression
Censorship: Before 1789, all cultural activities were under the king's censors.
Post-Bastille Era: Censorship was abolished, leading to a surge in newspapers, pamphlets, books, and printed pictures.
Freedom of Press: Allowed the dissemination of various perspectives and opposing views.
Napoleon's Era
Crowned as the Emperor of France in 1804.
Introduced modern laws; emphasized protection of private property, uniform system of weights, and measures.
European Expansion: Aimed to modernize Europe but was seen as an invader.
Defeat: At Waterloo in 1815.
Legacy of the French Revolution
Ideas of Liberty: Major legacy, spreading throughout Europe in the 19th century.
Influenced individuals like Tipu Sultan and Rammohan Roy.
Symbols & Imagery
Artists used symbols to communicate revolutionary ideas, such as:
Snake biting its tail: Eternity.
Sceptre: Royal power.
The eye within a triangle: Knowledge.
Bundle of rods: Unity.
Broken chain: Freedom.
Red Phrygian cap: Liberty.
Women in the Revolution
Olympe de Gouges: Advocated for women's rights.
Drafted Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen in 1791.
Jacobin politician Chaumette: Advocated for traditional gender roles.
Emancipation of Slaves
Revolutionary France sought to abolish slavery.
1794: Slaves in French colonies were emancipated.
Symbolized in art through paintings and prints.
Impact on Notable Figures
Raja Rammohan Roy: Inspired by the ideas of the French Revolution.
Important Dates
1774: Louis XVI becomes king.
1789: Storming of the Bastille, formation of National Assembly.
1791: Introduction of a constitution ensuring basic rights.
1792-93: France becomes a republic; the king is executed.
1804: Napoleon crowned as Emperor.
1815: Napoleon's defeat at Waterloo.
Keywords:
Triangular Slave Trade: A trade system between Europe, Africa, and the Americas involving slaves, crops, and manufactured goods.
Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen: A fundamental document defining individual and collective rights.
Napoleon Bonaparte: French military leader who became the Emperor of France.
New Words:
Livre: Unit of currency in France, discontinued in 1794.
Clergy: Group of persons invested with special functions in the church.
Tithe: A tax levied by the church, comprising one-tenth of the agricultural produce.
Taille: Tax to be paid directly to the state.
Subsistence crisis: A situation where basic livelihood means are endangered.
Anonymous: Unknown name.
Convent: Building belonging to a religious community.
Treason: Betrayal of one’s country or government.
Negroes: Derogatory term used for indigenous people of Africa south of the Sahara. (No longer in use)
Emancipation: The act of freeing.
Chapter 2 - Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution
The Age of Social Change
Post-French Revolution Era
The French Revolution stirred ideas of freedom and equality.
Discussions about individual rights and societal power control were widespread, even in colonies like India.
Society's structure began to change, moving away from aristocracy and church-controlled power.
Political Ideologies
Liberals: Advocated for a nation tolerant of all religions, opposed dynastic rulers, wanted safeguarded individual rights, and supported representative, elected parliamentary government. However, they did not believe in universal voting rights.
Radicals: Desired a government based on a majority population, supported women's voting rights, and opposed concentrated property ownership.
Conservatives: Accepted the need for gradual change and respected traditions.
Industrial Society
The Industrial Revolution led to the rise of new cities and the expansion of railways.
Industrialization brought people to factories with long work hours and poor wages.
Issues like housing and sanitation emerged with rapid urbanization.
Liberals and radicals sought solutions to these new societal problems.
Socialism's Arrival in Europe
Socialism's Vision: Against private property, aiming for collective ownership to address societal needs.
Robert Owen: Proposed the idea of cooperative communities like New Harmony.
Louis Blanc: Advocated for government-supported cooperatives.
Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Introduced the idea of 'capitalism' where capitalists owned the capital. Marx believed in a future communist society, free from capitalist exploitation.
Growing Support for Socialism
By the 1870s, socialist ideas gained traction in Europe.
The Second International was formed to unite socialist efforts.
Workers formed associations demanding better working conditions and voting rights.
Socialists started influencing legislation even though they didn't form governments till 1914.
The Russian Revolution
Russia Before the 1917 Revolution
The Russian Empire in 1914
Ruled by Tsar Nicholas II.
The empire included present-day Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, Central Asian states, and more.
Majority religion: Russian Orthodox Christianity. The empire was diverse with Catholics, Protestants, Muslims, and Buddhists.
Economy and Society
Agriculture dominated: 85% of the population were agriculturists.
Russia was a major exporter of grain.
Industrial areas: St Petersburg and Moscow. Both large factories and craft workshops existed.
Industrial growth in the 1890s was due to railway expansion and foreign investment.
Most industries were privately owned, but government supervision existed to ensure minimum wages and work hours.
Workers and Peasants
Workers had varying connections to their origins, skills, and roles.
Metalworkers: Considered "aristocrats" among workers.
Women in the workforce: Made up 31% but earned less than men.
Peasants: Cultivated most of the land, but the land was also owned by the nobility, crown, and church. They desired land from the nobles and often rebelled against them.
Unique practice: Land pooling and division among peasants based on family needs.
Socialism in Russia
Russian Social Democratic Workers Party (1898): Founded by Marx-inspired socialists, operated illegally due to government restrictions.
Socialist Revolutionary Party (1900): Advocated for peasants’ rights and land transfer from nobles to peasants.
Vladimir Lenin (Bolshevik leader): Believed in a disciplined party, in contrast to the Mensheviks who wanted an open membership approach.
1905 Revolution
Russia was an autocracy with the Tsar not accountable to any parliament.
In 1905, liberals, Social Democrats, Socialist Revolutionaries, and other groups demanded a constitution.
Bloody Sunday (1905): A peaceful march led by Father Gapon attacked, resulting in over 100 worker deaths. This sparked the 1905 Revolution.
After the revolution, the Tsar created a consultative Parliament (Duma) but retained much of his power.
The First World War and the Russian Empire
1914: War between Central powers (Germany, Austria, Turkey) and Allies (France, Britain, Russia).
Tsar Nicholas II initially had popular support but lost it due to bad governance and the influence of figures like Rasputin.
Russia faced heavy losses in the war, leading to over 7 million casualties by 1917.
Economic impact: Industry suffered, railway breakdowns, labor shortages, and scarcity of bread and flour.
Map
The February Revolution in Petrograd
Petrograd in Winter 1917
Grim conditions: Severe cold with food shortages in workers' quarters.
City layout: Workers and factories on the right bank of River Neva, official buildings, and fashionable areas on the left bank.
22-25 February: Strikes initiated by factory lockouts and International Women's Day demonstrations. No political party actively led these strikes.
Rise of the Petrograd Soviet
26-27 February: Demonstrations intensify, with police headquarters ransacked and increasing demands for bread, wages, and democracy.
The cavalry refused to fire on demonstrators; some regiments mutinied and sided with the workers.
Formation of the Petrograd Soviet (a council) on 27th February.
Abdication of the Tsar
Tsar Nicholas II abdicated on 2 March after military commanders advised him to do so.
A Provisional Government was formed, comprising Soviet and Duma leaders. It was to oversee the nation until a constituent assembly decided Russia's future.
Post-February Developments
Provisional Government: Influenced by army officials, landowners, and industrialists. Worked towards an elected government.
Soviets: Council-like bodies were established across Russia.
Return of Lenin (April 1917): Advocated for the end of the war, land for peasants, and nationalization of banks (April Theses). Proposed renaming the Bolshevik Party to the Communist Party.
Growing Workers' Movement & Peasant Revolts
Workers began to question industrial management and formed factory committees. The number of trade unions increased.
Peasants spurred by Socialist Revolutionaries, seized land. Land committees managed the redistribution process.
Tensions and Prelude to the October Revolution
Provisional Government vs. Bolsheviks: The government resisted workers' attempts at self-management and began arresting leaders. Bolshevik-led demonstrations in July 1917 faced repression.
Lenin, fearing a government dictatorship, began planning an uprising in September.
October Revolution (1917)
16 October: Lenin convinced the Petrograd Soviet and Bolshevik Party for a socialist takeover. A Military Revolutionary Committee was formed under Leon Trotsky.
24 October Uprising: The uprising started with the government's attempt to suppress Bolshevik newspapers. It culminated with the shelling of the Winter Palace, leading to the city's control under the committee.
Bolshevik Control: The All Russian Congress of Soviets approved the Bolshevik action. Bolsheviks secured the Moscow-Petrograd region by December.
What Changed after October?
Bolsheviks and the Making of Soviet Society
Bolsheviks' Opposition to Private Property
Nationalization: Industries and banks were nationalized in November 1917.
Land redistribution: Land was declared social property, and peasants could seize the nobility's land.
Urban reforms: Large houses were partitioned for family needs, and old aristocratic titles were banned.
New symbols: Bolshevik Party renamed to Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik); Soviet hat (budeonovka) introduced.
Constituent Assembly & Bolshevik Control
November 1917: Bolsheviks conducted Constituent Assembly elections but failed to secure a majority.
January 1918: The Assembly rejected Bolshevik proposals; Lenin dismissed it favoring the All-Russian Congress of Soviets.
Russia became a one-party state; censorship and secret police (Cheka, OGPU, NKVD) were used to suppress opposition.
Civil War and its Aftermath
Bolshevik land redistribution led to the Russian army's disintegration.
Non-Bolshevik factions (greens and whites) controlled most of the Russian empire with international backing.
1920: Bolsheviks gained control due to alliances with non-Russian nationalities.
December 1922: Formation of the Soviet Union (USSR) with political autonomy for non-Russian nationalities.
Making a Socialist Society
Centralized planning: Five Year Plans introduced to promote industrial growth.
Industrial expansion: Rapid growth with the creation of new factory cities; however, poor working conditions persisted.
Social reforms: Extended schooling, public health care, crèches in factories, model living quarters for workers.
Stalinism and Collectivisation
Grain supply crisis (1927-1928): Government-fixed grain prices led to peasant refusal to sell.
Emergency measures: Stalin enforced grain collections and targeted "kulaks" (well-to-do peasants).
Collectivisation: From 1929, peasants were forced to work in collective farms (kolkhoz) leading to resistance, livestock destruction, and a major famine (1930-1933).
Repression: Critics of Stalin's policies were accused of conspiring against socialism, resulting in widespread arrests, false confessions, and executions
The Global Influence of the Russian Revolution and the USSR
Initial Response to Bolsheviks
European socialist parties were skeptical of the Bolsheviks' methods of seizing and maintaining power.
Global Inspiration
The concept of a workers' state resonated globally.
Communist parties emerged in various countries, e.g., the Communist Party of Great Britain.
Bolsheviks and Colonial Peoples
Bolsheviks inspired colonial subjects to embrace their revolutionary model.
Notable events:
Conference of the Peoples of the East (1920)
Establishment of Comintern (union of pro-Bolshevik socialist parties).
Many non-Russians were educated in the Communist University of the Workers of the East.
USSR’s Stature by World War II
By WWII, the USSR represented socialism on the global stage.
Critique and Self-Reflection (1950s)
Acknowledged internally that the USSR's governance deviated from the Russian Revolution's ideals.
While the USSR transformed from a backward country to a powerful nation with industrial and agricultural growth, it:
Denied basic freedoms to its citizens.
Implemented developmental projects through repressive policies.
End of the 20th Century
USSR's reputation as a socialist beacon waned internationally.
While socialist ideals remained respected within the USSR, the concept of socialism was reinterpreted differently across countries.
Additional Concepts
Socialism in Russia and Its Global Influence
1. Terminologies and Key Concepts
Suffragette Movement: A movement to give women the right to vote.
Jadidists: Muslim reformers within the Russian empire.
Real Wage: Reflects the quantities of goods that wages will buy.
Autonomy: The right to govern oneself.
Nomadism: Lifestyle of those who move from area to area for sustenance.
Deported: Forcibly removed from one's country.
Exiled: Forced to live away from one's country.
2. Imagery and Depictions
Fig.1-6 depict various facets of Russian society from the struggles of the London poor to the living conditions of workers in Russia.
Fig.7 portrays the mighty Russian army during WWI.
Fig.8-10 captures key moments from the Bolshevik revolution.
Fig.14-20 offers a glimpse into the socialist ethos, factory life, children's education, and India's connection with the Soviet Union.
3. The Paris Commune (1871)
A popular uprising in Paris.
Signified by the workers' red flag and the 'Marseillaise' song.
4. Worker Mobilization
Alexander Shlyapnikov describes spontaneous, yet organized, worker meetings.
Meetings often resisted management and the police.
5. Russian Revolution & Beyond: Key Dates
1850s-1880s: Debates over socialism in Russia.
1898: Formation of the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party.
1905: The Bloody Sunday and the Revolution of 1905.
1917: Bolshevik uprising in Petrograd.
1918-20: The Civil War.
1919: Formation of Comintern.
1929: Beginning of Collectivisation.
Note: Russia switched from the Julian to the Gregorian calendar in 1918, causing a 13-day shift in recorded dates.
6. Collectivisation and Its Impact
Collectivization program: Confiscation of land and assets from peasants to establish state-controlled farms.
Many resisted, leading to punitive measures like deportations and exiles.
Multiple perspectives captured through letters and reports reveal diverse experiences.
7. Russian Revolution's Influence in India
Inspired several Indians, leading to the formation of the Communist Party in India.
Prominent figures like Nehru and Tagore visited Russia and wrote about Soviet Socialism.
Indian literature from the period reflects admiration and intrigue towards the Soviet experiment.
8. Personal Accounts & Observations
Various accounts, such as those by M.N. Roy, Shaukat Usmani, and Rabindranath Tagore, offer a personal lens into the revolutionary changes in Russia and their global implications.
Chapter 3 - Nazism and the Rise of Hitler
Introduction
Nazi Germany and Its Aftermath
1. Helmuth's Story
Helmuth, an 11-year-old German boy, overhears his father, a physician and Nazi supporter, discussing suicide due to the impending defeat of Nazi Germany.
Helmuth's father commits suicide. Traumatized, Helmuth fears eating at home for nine years, thinking his mother might poison him.
2. End of WWII and Nazi Germany
May 1945: Germany surrenders to the Allies.
April 1945: Anticipating defeat, Hitler and his close associates commit collective suicide in his Berlin bunker.
3. Nuremberg Trials
An International Military Tribunal is set up in Nuremberg to prosecute Nazi war criminals.
Charges include Crimes against Peace, War Crimes, and Crimes Against Humanity.
4. Nazi Atrocities
Genocidal War: Germany's systemic extermination of selected groups.
6 million Jews.
200,000 Gypsies.
1 million Polish civilians.
70,000 disabled Germans.
Countless political opponents.
Killing Methods: Unprecedented means, including gassing in centers like Auschwitz.
5. Outcome of the Nuremberg Trials
Only eleven leading Nazis are sentenced to death.
Many are imprisoned for life.
Allies are lenient, to avoid harsh repercussions as seen after World War I.
6. Moral and Ethical Implications
Germany's conduct during the war raised worldwide condemnation.
The brutality and extent of Nazi crimes far exceeded the punishment meted out at Nuremberg.
7. Afterthoughts
The rise of Nazi Germany is believed to be linked to Germany's experience after the First World War.
Birth of the Weimar Republic
Weimar Germany and Its Challenges
1. Germany in World War I
Fought alongside the Austrian empire against the Allies (England, France, Russia).
Enthusiastically entered war expecting a quick victory.
Occupied France and Belgium but was defeated by the Allies in November 1918.
2. Weimar Republic's Birth
Established after the abdication of the German emperor.
Created a democratic constitution with a federal structure.
Reichstag members were elected through equal, universal adult suffrage.
3. Treaty of Versailles
Humiliating peace treaty for Germany post WWI.
Loss of colonies, territories, and resources.
War Guilt Clause: Germany was held responsible for the war.
Forced to pay £6 billion in compensation.
Rhineland was occupied by Allied powers.
4. Effects of WWI
Europe turned from creditors to debtors.
The Weimar Republic was blamed for the war defeat and Versailles humiliation.
Soldiers valorized above civilians; aggressive war propaganda.
Soldiers' miserable trench life concealed by media.
Statistics: Between 1700 and 1995 (industrialization era):
13.9 million sq km of forest cleared.
Equivalent to 9.3% of the world’s total area.
Reasons for Clearance:
Industrial uses.
Cultivation.
Pasture development.
Fuelwood collection.
Why Deforestation?
Causes of Deforestation in India
1. Introduction
Deforestation: The process of forest removal.
Historical Context: Started centuries ago but became systematic and extensive during colonial rule.
2. Expansion of Cultivated Land
Historical Statistics:
1600: 1/6th of India’s land under cultivation.
Present: About half.
Reasons for Expansion:
Growing population and food demand.
British encouraged commercial crops: jute, sugar, wheat, cotton.
European demand for food grains and raw materials.
Forests were viewed as unproductive in the early 19th century by the colonial state.
Between 1880 and 1920: The cultivated area increased by 6.7 million hectares.
3. Timber for the Royal Navy
Context: By the early 19th century, oak forests in England were depleting.
Concern: Timber is required for building ships for the Royal Navy.
Solution: By the 1820s, India was explored for timber resources, leading to large-scale deforestation.
4. Railways and Deforestation
Importance of Railways: Vital for colonial trade and troop movement.
Wood Demand: Fuel for locomotives and sleepers for tracks.
1 mile of track needed 1,760 to 2,000 sleepers.
Expansion:
1860s: Rapid growth of railway network.
1890: About 25,500 km of track.
1946: Over 765,000 km.
Impact:
Massive tree cutting, especially around railway tracks.
1850s: 35,000 trees cut annually in Madras Presidency for sleepers.
Contractors given tree supply contracts led to indiscriminate felling.
5. Plantations and Forest Clearance
Commodities: Tea, coffee, rubber plantations.
European Demand: Increased need for the mentioned commodities.
Colonial Action:
Forest areas were taken over.
Vast areas are given to European planters at cheap rates.
Areas enclosed, cleared, and then planted.
The Rise of Commercial Forestry
Impact of British Colonial Rule on Forests and Forest Dwellers
1. Introduction to British Forest Concerns
British required forests for ships and railways.
Concern over local usage and uncontrolled tree felling.
Dietrich Brandis: First Inspector General of Forests in India.
2. Scientific Forestry and Its Introduction
Objective: Conservation and timber production.
Indian Forest Service: Established in 1864.
Indian Forest Act: Introduced in 1865, amended in 1878 and 1927.
Imperial Forest Research Institute: Established in Dehradun (1906).
Concept:
Natural forests are replaced by plantations.
Trees are planted in straight rows.
Specific areas marked for cutting and replanting.
3. Impact on Villagers and Local Needs
Forest Official's Perspective: Preference for trees suitable for building and railways.
Villagers' Perspective: Need for diverse trees for various uses.
Forest Products: Roots, leaves, fruits, tubers, herbs, wood, bamboo, etc.
Post Forest Act: Common practices became illegal, leading to hardships.
4. Changing Agricultural Practices
Shifting Cultivation: Traditional practice across Asia, Africa, and South America.
Local names: dhya, penda, bewar, etc.
Forest parts were cut and burnt in rotation.
Crops are sown post-monsoon and harvested by October-November.
European Perspective: Harmful for forests and tax calculation.
Result: Shifting cultivation banned; many communities displaced.
5. Hunting Restrictions and Colonial Sport
Pre-laws: Local people survived by hunting small animals.
Post-laws: Hunting became a sport for the British; leading to the near extinction of certain species.
Rewards: Given for killing tigers, wolves, etc. for a perceived threat.
Numbers: Over 80,000 tigers, 150,000 leopards, and 200,000 wolves killed between 1875-1925.
6. New Trades and Occupations
Trade in Forest Products: Not new, but regulated by the British government.
European Firms: Granted exclusive trading rights in certain areas.
Pastoralists & Nomads: Livelihoods affected; some termed ‘criminal tribes’.
Work Conditions: New work opportunities did not guarantee improved conditions. Example: Tea plantations in Assam
Rebellion in the Forest
The Rebellion in Bastar and Forest Reforms
1. Introduction to Bastar Rebellion
Bastar rebellion against British forest reforms in 1910.
Leaders like Siddhu, Kanu, Birsa Munda, and Alluri Sitarama Raju led movements against British forest changes.
2. Bastar Region and Its Inhabitants
Location: Southernmost part of Chhattisgarh; borders Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, and Maharashtra.
Geography: Central plateau, Chhattisgarh plain to the north, Godavari plain to the south, and Indrawati river.
Communities: Maria and Muria Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras, and Halbas.
Shared customs, languages, and beliefs.
Reverence for Earth, rivers, forests, and mountains.
System of natural resource conservation within village boundaries.
Annual hunt and discussions on forest concerns.
3. Colonial Forest Reforms and Local Concerns
Colonial Proposals (1905): Reserve two-thirds of the forest.
Stop shifting cultivation, hunting, and forest produce collection.
Creation of 'forest villages' with free labor for the forest department.
Displacement without notice or compensation.
Increased land rents, demands for free labor, goods, and famines aggravated issues.
4. The Outbreak of Rebellion
Initial discussions in village councils, bazaars, and festivals.
Led by Dhurwas of Kanger forest.
Gunda Dhur: Key figure of the movement.
Symbols of Rebellion: Mango boughs, earth lumps, chilies, and arrows as messages.
Villages contributed to rebellion expenses.
Targets: Officials, traders, police stations, schools; associated with colonial oppression.
British Response: Troops sent, violent suppression, floggings, punishments.
5. Aftermath and Legacy
The rebellion led to the temporary suspension of reservation.
Reserved area reduced to half of the initial plan.
Gunda Dhur remained uncaptured.
Post-Independence: Exclusion of people from forests continued.
1970s World Bank proposal: Replace sal forest with tropical pine.
Stopped after protests by local environmentalists.
6. A Glimpse Beyond India
Mention of similar forest-related events in Indonesia during the same period.
Map
Forest Transformations in Java
Java's Forest History and Its Management
1. Introduction to Java's Forests
Java, an Indonesian island, known for rice production, was once densely forested.
Dutch colonized Java and initiated forest management primarily for shipbuilding.
2. Java's Indigenous Forest Communities
Population in 1600: Estimated at 3.4 million.
Habitat: Fertile plains and mountain communities practicing shifting cultivation.
3. Woodcutters and their Role
Kalangs: Skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators.
Highly valued for their expertise in harvesting teak.
In 1755, Kalangs were split between two kingdoms due to their importance.
Resisted Dutch control in 1770, attacking a Dutch fort, but were suppressed.
4. Dutch Forest Reforms in Java
Dutch Objectives: Control forests for shipbuilding and railways.
Enactment of Forest Laws: Restricted villagers' access to forests.
Regulated wood cutting, cattle grazing, and transportation.
Introduction of a forest service for management.
Introduction of the blandongdiensten system: Villagers provided free labor and buffalo for timber work in exchange for rent exemptions or small wages.
5. Challenges to Dutch Forest Reforms
Samin's Challenge: Circa 1890.
Surontiko Samin questioned state ownership of forests.
Sparked a movement with 3,000 families by 1907.
Protest methods included refusing taxes, fines, and labor.
6. Impact of World Wars on Java's Forests
First and Second World Wars: Led to uncontrolled deforestation.
Dutch destroyed sawmills and burned teak logs to prevent Japanese access.
Japanese exploited forests for war needs, leading villagers to expand cultivation.
Post-war, the forest department struggled to reclaim land from villagers.
7. Contemporary Forest Management
Shift in Perspective (1980s onwards):
Move from timber collection to conservation.
The realization that local communities are integral to forest conservation.
In India, forests survived due to village protection in sacred groves.
Local forest communities and environmentalists are re-envisioning forest management.
Map
Additional Concepts
Colonialism, Forests, and Communities
1. Overview of Forest Landscapes
Sal Forest in Chhattisgarh (Fig.1):
Dense forest with varied species heights.
Limited sunlight on the forest floor due to density.
Native American Use of Land (Fig.2):
Native Americans like the Lakota tribe practiced a diversified economy, including maize cultivation, wild plant foraging, and bison hunting.
English settlers viewed keeping large areas open for bison as wasteful.
Post-1860s: Massive reduction in bison populations.
2. Colonial Perspectives on 'Unimproved' Land
Colonizers believed in "improving" uncultivated land, which became a justification for conquest.
Richard Harding (1896) expressed the sentiment of colonizers, viewing Central Americans as "semi-barbarians" not understand the value of their land.
Resulted in the rise of large companies like the American-owned United Fruit Company in Central America, leading to the term "Banana Republics".
3. Terra Nullius and Indigenous Lands
White settlers in Australia claimed it as "terra nullius" or empty land.
Aboriginal communities had clear territories and paths, guiding settlers through the landscape.
The Ngarrindjeri people demarcated land based on the symbolic body of their ancestor, Ngurunderi.
4. Forest Exploitation and Colonial Needs
Sleepers (New Word): Wooden planks laid across railway tracks, holding them in position.
Logging & Timber:
Adivasis (Fig.3) were employed by the forest department to cut trees for railway sleepers but couldn't use the same trees for their homes.
Timber transportation methods included bamboo rafts (Fig.4) and elephants (Fig.5) in the colonial period.
Indus Valley Railway: The requirement of sleepers and wood fuel led to increased deforestation (Fig.6, Fig.7).
'Scientific' Forestry and Plantations:
Scientific forestry (New Word): A system of controlled tree cutting supervised by the forest department.
Managed forests in places like Tuscany, Italy (Fig.9) and Kangra, India (Fig.10) promoted uniform tree growth mainly for timber.
5. Indigenous Forest Activities and Rebellion
Forest Produce Collection:
Mahua flowers (Fig.12) were collected for consumption and oil extraction.
Tendu leaves (Fig.13) served as a significant income source for forest dwellers.
Transport & Agriculture:
Grain transport (Fig.14) showed gender-specific carrying methods.
Taungya cultivation (Fig.15) allowed temporary cultivation within a plantation.
Shifting cultivation (Fig.16) involved clearing forest patches and using ashes for fertility.
War and Rebellion:
Army camp in Bastar (Fig.19) during the 1910 rebellion against British rule.
Rebellion narratives from Bastar elders spoke of battles and British suppressions.
6. Colonial Exploitation and Resource Use
War Timber and Deforestation:
World Wars accelerated deforestation for war needs (Fig.23).
Colonial powers exploited resources in their colonies for war success.
Dutch Colonization in Java:
Dutch initiated 'scientific forestry' in Java, known for teak (Fig.22).
Log yards under Dutch rule in Rembang (Fig.24) were a testament to extensive forest exploitation.
7. Colonial Discourse & Justifications
Dirk van Hogendorp, an official of the United East India Company, emphasized the vast potential of Java's forests for shipbuilding and lamented their underutilization.
8. Keywords & Definitions
Terra Nullius: A term indicating "no man's land" or a territory that no nation claims as its own.
Banana Republics: A term for countries that are politically unstable and dependent on limited resources, typically referred to Central American countries with large banana exports and significant U.S. influence.
9. New Words Compilation
Sleepers: Wooden planks laid across railway tracks to hold them in position.
Scientific forestry: A controlled tree-cutting system supervised by the forest department.
Chapter 5 - Pastoralists in the Modern World
Overview
Nomadic Pastoralists
1. Introduction
Nomads: People who move from one area to another rather than settling permanently.
Do not live in fixed places.
Move with herds of animals like goats, sheep, camels, and cattle.
Travel to earn their living.
2. The Visibility of Pastoralists in History
History Textbooks & Pastoralists:
Pastoralists often overlooked in history lessons.
The focus is typically on agriculture, industry, and sometimes artisans.
Seldom attention was given to the lives and importance of pastoralists.
3. Importance of Pastoralism
Role in Societies:
Pastoralism has been vital in various societies, especially in India and Africa.
Contrary to the perception, they are not just figures from the past but play an active role in contemporary society.
4. Impact of Colonialism
Changes in Pastoral Lives:
Colonialism significantly affected the lives of pastoralists.
Their traditional practices, movements, and rights came under pressure.
5. Modern Society & Pastoralism
Despite modernization pressures, pastoralists have adapted and managed to maintain their unique way of life.
Pastoral Nomads and their Movements
Pastoralists in India
1. Overview
Pastoralists are those who move from one area to another with their herds, depending on the season and availability of pastures.
2. Pastoralism in Different Regions
2.1. In the Mountains
Gujjar Bakarwals (Jammu and Kashmir):
Migrated to the region in the 19th century.
Moved between summer and winter grazing grounds.
Winter: Siwalik range (dry scrub forests).
Summer: Valley of Kashmir (lush green mountainsides).
Gaddi Shepherds (Himachal Pradesh):
Winter: Siwalik range (scrub forests).
Summer: Lahul and Spiti (high mountain meadows).
Gujjar Cattle Herders (Garhwal & Kumaon):
Winter: Dry forests of Bhabar.
Summer: High meadows (bugyals).
Other Himalayan Pastoralists:
Bhotiyas, Sherpas, Kinnauris.
Movement patterns were cyclical based on seasonal changes.
2.2. On the Plateaus, Plains, and Deserts
Dhangars (Maharashtra):
Population: Estimated to be 467,000 in the early 20th century.
Summer: Konkan region.
Winter: Central plateau of Maharashtra (semi-arid region).
Pastoralists in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh:
Gollas (cattle herders), Kurumas, and Kurubas (sheep and goat herders).
Movement-based on dry and monsoon seasons.
Banjaras:
Found in UP, Punjab, Rajasthan, MP, and Maharashtra.
Traded plough cattle for grain and fodder.
Raikas (Rajasthan):
Lived in desert regions.
Combined cultivation with pastoralism.
Two groups: Maru Raikas (camel herders) and another that reared sheep and goats.
3. Key Aspects of Pastoralism
Movement Patterns: Determined by factors like water availability, quality of pastures, and seasonal changes.
Relationship with Farmers: Pastoralists had arrangements with farmers to let their herds graze in harvested fields and manure the fields.
Diverse Livelihood: Pastoralists engaged in cultivation, trade, and herding to sustain their living.
Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life
Pastoralists Under Colonial Rule
1. Overview
Under colonial rule, the lives of pastoralists underwent significant changes due to policies and regulations.
2. Major Changes Brought by Colonial Rule
2.1. Shrinking Grazing Grounds
Grazing lands turned into cultivated farms.
Aim: To increase land revenue and produce more crops like jute, cotton, wheat for England.
Uncultivated land is seen as a 'waste land'.
Waste Land Rules: Uncultivated lands taken over and given to select individuals.
2.2. Forest Acts and Regulations
Forests declared as 'Reserved' or 'Protected'.
Reserved Forests: Produced valuable timber. No access to pastoralists.
Protected Forests: Restricted access and movement of pastoralists.
Belief: Grazing destroyed young saplings preventing new tree growth.
Permit system introduced: Limited days of stay, specified entry and exit timings.
Overstay resulted in fines.
2.3. Suspicion and Control of Nomads
The colonial government favored settled populations for easier control.
Criminal Tribes Act (1871): Classified many communities as criminal by nature.
Restricted movement: Needed a permit to leave notified village settlements.
2.4. Taxation on Pastoralists
Taxes are imposed on various commodities including animals.
The grazing tax was introduced in the mid-nineteenth century.
Tax collection became more efficient, with passes given to pastoralists.
3. Impact on Pastoralists
3.1. Decline of Pasture Lands
Conversion of grazing lands to farms led to reduced pastures.
Reservation of forests also reduced available pastures.
Continuous grazing reduced the quality of pastures.
Scarcities and famines led to the deaths of underfed cattle.
3.2. Adaptations and Coping Mechanisms
Reduction in the number of cattle.
Discovery of new pastures.
Example: Raikas migrated to Haryana after 1947.
Some bought land and became settled peasants or traders.
Poor pastoralists borrowed money, losing cattle and becoming laborers.
Despite challenges, many pastoralists adapted and even expanded in number.
4. Global Perspective
Similar changes are experienced by pastoral communities worldwide.
Adaptations were made to cope with new laws and settlements.
Pastoralism in Africa
1. Overview
Over 22 million Africans rely on pastoral activity.
Major pastoral communities: Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Boran, and Turkana.
Live in semi-arid grasslands or arid deserts due to challenges with rainfed agriculture.
Livelihoods from cattle, camels, goats, sheep, and donkeys; selling milk, meat, skin, and wool.
2. The Maasai Community
Primarily in East Africa: 300,000 in southern Kenya, and 150,000 in Tanzania.
Significant changes in their lives during colonial and post-colonial periods.
2.1. Loss of Grazing Lands
Maasailand, originally vast, was divided between British Kenya and German Tanganyika in 1885.
Best grazing lands were taken for white settlement, pushing Maasai to arid zones.
Lost 60% of pre-colonial lands.
Cultivation expanded, turning pastures into fields.
Game reserves like Maasai Mara, Samburu National Park, and Serengeti Park were created over traditional grazing lands.
2.2. Mobility Restrictions
Previously, pastoralists moved freely in search of pastures.
The colonial government introduced restrictions, limiting movement to specific reserves.
Special permits are needed for movement.
Markets and trade were restricted; white settlers viewed pastoralists as dangerous.
2.3. Impact of Drought
Drought severely affects pastoralists.
Being nomadic helped cope with drought.
Colonial boundaries restricted movements, causing livestock deaths during droughts.
Over half of the cattle died in 1933-34 droughts in the Maasai Reserve.
2.4. Social Distinctions in Maasai Society
The traditional distinction is based on age between elders and warriors.
British measures affected the power dynamics.
Chiefs appointed by the colonial government accumulated wealth and survived adversities.
Poor pastoralists struggled, losing livestock and resorting to odd jobs.
3. Conclusion
Modern world changes affect pastoral communities differently.
New laws and borders impact movement patterns.
Droughts intensify crises due to reduced mobility.
Pastoralists adapt by altering movement paths, political lobbying, and seeking rights to resources.
Recognized as an ecologically suitable form of life for hilly and dry regions
Map
Additional Concepts
Pastoral Life in India and Africa
1. Bugyals of Eastern Garhwal
Bugyals: Vast natural pastures on high mountains above 12,000 feet.
Under snow in winter, vibrant from April onwards.
Rich with grasses, roots, herbs, and wildflowers during monsoon.
2. Gujjars of Kangra (1850s)
Primarily pastoral: focus on buffaloes.
Livelihood from milk, ghee, and other dairy products.
Men graze cattle; women sell dairy products in markets.
In hot weather, they move herds to the upper range for better grazing.
3. Gujjar Mandap
Gujjar cattle herders reside in mandaps made of ringal (hill bamboo) and grass.
Located at 10,000 to 11,000 feet.
Previously, ghee production took place here; now, milk is transported directly.
4. Gaddi Shepherds
Gaddis have flocks of sheep and goats.
By September, they descend from high meadows (Dhars) and shear their sheep.
5. Raika Camels in Thar Desert
Camels graze on dry, thorny bushes over extensive areas.
Only camels can survive in such conditions.
6. Traveller Accounts of Pastoral Groups
Gollas in Mysore (early 19th century): Lived near forests, sold dairy products, and had large families.
7. Maru Raikas in Rajasthan
Maru (desert) Raikas: Camel herders near Jaisalmer.
Display their camel training expertise at Balotra camel fair.
8. Pastoralists' Relationship with Forests
Forests used for grazing couldn't yield timber and fuel.
Restrictions led to reduced grazing areas, impacting pastoralists' earnings and livestock quality.
9. Maasai in East Africa
Maasailand: Affected by colonial boundaries, lost grazing lands.
Traditionally against tilling land, now dependent on external food sources.
10. Pastoral Challenges in Africa
Movement restrictions due to territorial boundaries.
Kaokoland herders in Namibia are restricted from moving between regions.
11. Maasai Warriors
Wear traditional deep red shukas, and beaded jewelry, and carry spears.
Responsible for society's security and livestock herding during droughts.
12. Important Dates and Contexts
1850-55: G.C. Barnes' description of the Gujjars of Kangra.
1807: Francis Hamilton Buchanan's journey through Mysore.
1913: H.S. Gibson's views on forests.
1928: Royal Commission on Agriculture's report.
1919: British control over Tanganyika.
1961: Tanganyika's independence.
1964: Formation of Tanzania.
1937: Restrictions on Kaokoland herders.
1949: Statement of Kaokoland herders.
13. New Words and Definitions
Bhabar: Dry forested area below the foothills of Garhwal and Kumaun.
Bugyal: Vast meadows in the high mountains.
Kharif: Autumn crop, harvested between September and October.
Rabi: Spring crop, usually harvested after March.
Stubble: Lower ends of grain stalks left after harvesting.
Customary rights: Rights practiced by tradition and custom.
