Ancient & Medieval of Vision IAS (To Be Sorted)

Prehistory

Paleolithic Phase (5 lakh BC to 10,000 BC)

Introduction

The human beings appeared on planet earth in the middle of the Pleistocene Epoch

The evolutionary phase of humans which is recent is known as Holocene

The early humans used a variety of stone tools to hunt the animals and also defend themselves from the wild animals

They did not have knowledge of agricultural practices and their life was dependent on things/plants grown in the wild and the animals

The early human history can be understood mainly with the help of the stone tools used by them and on this basis, the stone age is divided

The Paleolithic is further subdivided into three sub-phases:

Upper Paleolithic Phase (5 Lakh BC to 50,000 BC)

In this phase, the tools were irregular in shape, big in size and rough in nature
The characteristic tools of this time were cleavers, choppers and hand axes

Middle Paleolithic Phase: (1 Lakh BC to 40, 000 BC)

The tools were closer to the rectangular shape and smaller than the previous period tool
The characteristic tools of this time were scrappers, borers and burins

Lower paleolithic Phase (40,000 BC to 10,000 BC)

In this period, flake stone tools were created which were roughly closer to rectangular shape
The characteristic tools were blades and points
The majority of these stone tools were found from Narmada Valley

Mesolithic Phase (10,000 BC to 6000 BC)

Introduction

It was a transition phase from a very cold climate to a warm climate which was highly conducive to the development and evolution of human beings

One of the major beginnings at this time was the domestication of animals whose evidence has been found from Adamgarh (MP) and Bagohar (Rajasthan)

The major achievement of this period was the characteristic tool ie the microlith

It was a tiny and very sharp tool, which not only facilitated in the effective killing of the animals but also in creating the characteristic painting of this period popularly known as Mesolithic Paintings

Mesolithic Painting

They were of the category of Petroglyphs which is basically rock-cut cave paintings

The mesolithic painting is not only the mark of fine aesthetic sense but also it is the most important source to know about the socio-cultural practices of the Mesolithic period

The major themes included animals hunting and riding, gathering, fighting scenes, household chores, celebration, sexual union, phallus worship, yoni worship, group dance, etc

Animal riding indicated the taming of animals

Fighting scenes and household chores suggest the division of labour

Celebration and group dance suggested community sense

Sexual union suggests primitive marriage

Phallus and Yoni worship suggest primitive worship

The paintings were coloured with vegetable and mineral colours

Red was the dominating colour and the major source of red colour was animal blood

Neolithic Phase (6000 BC to 3000 BC)

One of the most important development at this time was the creation of polished stone tools.

Moreover, many other varieties of tools were used like bow and arrow.

The major achievement of this period was the start of agricultural practices.

Moreover, human beings started to live in a permanent type of community.

The neolithic people master the controlled use of fire.

Another important beginning was wheel-made pottery.

The first evidence of agricultural practice in the Indian subcontinent was at Mehergarh in the Balochistan area of Pakistan ( in the world it was Syria in Mesopotamian civilization)

Proto-History

Indus Valley Civilization (2600 BC-1800 BC)

Introduction

The information about civilization in the Indian sub-continent was available by the 1870s but there was no attempt of exploration.

In the 1920s archeological survey of India under the chairmanship of John Marshall decided to go for excavation.

The task of excavation was given to two Indian archeologists Dayaram Sahani and RD Banerjee.

In 1921, Dayaram Sahani excavated Harappa, and RD Banerjee 1922 excavated Mohenjodaro (meaning Mound of Deads).

Important Sites of IVC

Suktagendor (westernmost site), Mohenjodaro, Kotdiji, Amri, Chanudaro, Harappa, Manda (Northernmost site), Alamgirpur (Easternmost site), Dimabad (Southernmost site), Rakhigari (Haryana, largest site), Kalibangan, Ropar, Dholavira, Allahdino, Lothal, Rangpur, Desalpur, Rangpur, Balakot, Prabhas Patan, Suttakoh, Surkatoda, Kalibangan, etc.

Harappa: Textile Industry

Mohenjodaro = Advanced town planning, great bath, and textile industry

Chanudaro = Bead industry

Rakhigarhi = Largest site of IVC

Kalibangan = Bangle industry and a wooden agricultural plow was found

Allahdino and Suttakoh = Shipping industry

Lothal = Dockyard of IVC an also situated on the banks of river Bhogava

Dholavira = is considered as the most advanced site of IVC, as it is the only town that had 3 layers of planning.

As per historians, the middle layer of the town is believed to be a garrison town. The interesting feature of Dholavira is the presence of radial channels for irrigation, recently it was given UNESCO heritage status.

Rangpur = in Rangpur and Lothal stretch rice was cultivated but not in the other parts of IVC.

Surkotada = From this place one animal jaw was found which was earlier believed to be belonging to a horse but later in the light of scientific evidence it was proved that the jaw does not belong to the horse and IVC people were unaware about the Horses.

Polity of IVC

From the town planning of IVC, it seems that there was a centralized system of administration (Citadel)

The majority of Historians conclude that Indus Valley was ruled by a group of rich merchants and traders and they reject the system of monarchy.

Society of IVC

From the town planning of IVC, it can be inferred that society was unequal in nature, but it can also be said that it was not discriminatory in nature.

Further, it can be maintained that there was a concept of co-existence in IVC and also mobilization in society.

Many of the historians quoted that Indus valley society was patriarchal in nature and they cited examples of the head priest who was a male.

The majority of the historians maintained that society was matriarchal and they cited the examples of the most abundant image found from Indus towns that is the mother goddess.

Economy of IVC

Agriculture was the most important activity at this time. following agricultural commodities were cultivated like - Wheat, barley, Millets, Pea, Sesamum, Rye, Cotton, Melons.

In the later ages, cotton was called SINDON as it was the native plant of SINDHU Valley.

Cotton was at the base of the textile industry which flourished at Harappa, Alamgirpur, and Mohenjodaro.

IVC people established trade with the following areas - Afghanistan, Mesopotamia, Sumer (Baghdad), Dilman (Qatar), Oman, Egypt, and Magan (Persian Gulf Countries)

The agricultural commodities and textiles were exported from Indus Valley, and they imported precious metals like Gold, Silver, Copper, and Semi-precious Stones like Amethyst, Carnelian, and Lapis-Lazuli

Religious and After death rituals of IVC

IVC people worshipped both male and female deities for example Pashupati Shiva and mother goddess.

They also worshipped nature and there was no institutional structure like a temple at this point in time.

There were many methods of after-death practices in the Indus Valley Civilization which includes - full burial, fractional burial, and also pot and urn burials.

Moreover, the bodies were buried along with daily life objects like ornaments, pottery, food items, etc.

On the basis of which it can be said that IVC people believed in otherworldly life and also they must have thought that the dead person must be using the buried commodities in his other life.

The DECLINE of IVC

Initially, some of the historians quoted Aryan Invasion as the main reason for the decline they quoted the battle of Hariyupiya mentioned in Rig Veda as the battle of Harappa but later it was rejected in the lack of evidence.

The majority of the Historians now believed that climatic change over a period of time was the most important reason for its decline. Moreover, there is a greater consensus of flooding and inundation as the most important reason.

Chalcolithic Culture (1800 BC to 1500 BC)

Chalcolithic refers to the usage of copper and stone at the same point in time.

This period is highly visible after the decline of the Indus valley civilization.

It was a rural culture in which people's life was dependent on agriculture, fishing, animal husbandry, and textile making

There were a few instances of usage of Bronze also but the most important metal used at this point in time was copper.

In the Chalcolithic phase, people created Ochre Colored Pottery (OCP).

Important Developments

One of the very important developments of this period was the beginning of burying the dead in the same direction all over a particular region.

In other words, it can be said that direction sense developed while burying the dead.

There were many important pockets of Chalcolithic Culture between 1800 and 1500 BC.

EX:-Ahar Banas, Malvan, Kayath, Svaldah, etc.

Ancient History - Chronology

The advent of Aryans (1500 BC)

Introduction

Around 1500 BC Aryans started to arrive in Indian Subcontinent in many batches.They were nomadic people who were always on the move and they were also pastoralists

They were always in search of good pasture land which was important for their most important economic wealth cattles.

Originally the term Aryans denotes a linguistic community.

Advent

All the different tribes of Central Aisa who arrived in the Indian subcontinent had one thing in common that is all of them used the Aryan group of languages.

These Aryans were able to defeat the Indigenous population of India because of the usage of horse-driven chariots which provided swiftness to their army and the use of superior bronze tools.

Moreover, they were also equipped with the armaments of defense like- Helmet, Mail Coat, etc.

After their arrival, they started to compose Vedas in the Sanskrit Language.

The first Veda to be composed was Rigveda

The knowledge of Veda was forwarded to the next generation in Shruti form (Oral tradition)

The Vedic Age - Early Vedic Period (1500 BC-1000 BC) and Later Vedic Period (1000 BC to 6th Century BC)

Early Vedic Age (1500 BC to 1000 BC)

Geographical Details

Rigveda provides a beautiful description of nature and it mentions the following rivers-

Indus = Sindhu, Jhelum = Vitasta

Chenab = Askini, Ravi = Parushni

Beas = Vipasa, Sutlej = Shutudri

Saraswati = Naditarana

The most important river as per the Rigveda is Indus and the most sacred river is Saraswati

Economy during EV period

Cattle were the most important economic wealth of this time.

The head of the tribal community Rajan was supposed to organize battles to secure a large number of cattle.

The importance of cattle is highlighted in many ways in Rigveda with the

following key terms:-

Gavyu = Cow,

Gopajanya = Master of Cow

Gavisthi = Search for Cow

Duhitri = Milcher of a cow (daughter was also referred to as Duhitri)

Godhuma= one which was grown in cow dung (wheat)

Godhuli = measurement of time (dusk)

Aghanya = not to be killed (referred to cow)

Goghana = the very guest to whom cow meat is served

The next important economic wealth was agricultural produce like- Barley (Yava), Wheat (Godhuma).

There was no formal system of taxation, People contributed voluntarily to the chieftain in the form of Bhag or Bali.

Polity

The Aryan tribal community was headed by the Chieftain known as Rajan.

His most important function was to organize battles to secure cattle.

In all his political endeavors Rajan was assisted by many political assemblies which are

Sabha, Samiti, and Vidhata.

Sabha = it was an exclusive assembly and the most important decision-making body, it mainly consisted of the elders of the society including both males and females.

Samiti = it was an inclusive assembly but only consisted of males, not females, it was not a very decisive assembly and its role was mainly limited with the appointment of Rajan.

Vidhata = Though there is no exact clarity about the function of this assembly it took decisions regarding religious rituals and agricultural practices. Both males and females were part of this assembly.

Dasarajana War

Bharat clan was the most powerful Aryan tribe of this time.It was ruled by Sudas who had to take a very important decision regarding the appointment of the head priest as such in between Vashishtha Rishi and Vishwamitra Rishi, Sudas chose Vashishtha.

Humiliated Vishwamitra decided to teach a lesson to Sudas. He persuaded 5 Aryans and 5 Non-Aryan Kings to fight with Sudas as such a battle was fought on the banks of river Parushni (Ravi) in which the Dasrajan were thoroughly defeated.

After this war, the entire area ruled by Sudas was named after his clan as Bharatvarsha.

Society

The Vedic Society was organized on the lines of Grama (community), Vis (Clan), Kula (Family).

Kula was the most important unit of society which was headed by Kulapa, who was the eldest male member of the family

Society was patriarchal in nature but women were highly respected in the society.

Political rights = they enjoyed political rights as they are part of Sabha and Vidhata

Women were also allowed to peruse education and one of the most learned personalities was Lopamudra. Women were also allowed to choose their spouse under Gandharva Vivah (Love marriage)

There were no instances of Child Marriage during this time

Generally, society was following Polygamy and monandry but there were instances of Polyandry also.

Widow remarriage was allowed under Niyog vivah as per this system women can marry the younger brother of the deceased husband only if there is no son born from the first marriage.

The institution of slavery was rampant at this time. There were two types of slaves, that is, Dasa = Defeated Aryans, and Dasyu = defeated non-Aryans.Many times Dasa was given favorable treatment but Dasyus was highly discriminated, In fact, Rigveda mentioned Dasuy Hatya which means mass killing of Dasyu.

Religious Practices

Society was not divided but there were three major categories of profession

Intellectual or Priestly class
Warrior Class
Service Class

The Early Vedic people personified the elements of nature into God as such

important divinities emerged -

Indra was the most important divinity mentioned more than 250 times in Rigveda. Indra was God of Rain and Thunder and he was also referred to as Purandhar (breaker of the forts)

Agni (God of Fire) - mentioned more than 200 times in Rigveda, he was considered as intermediary God

Varun (God of Water) - mentioned more than 150 times in Rigveda. His original function is associated with maintaining cosmic balance

Mitra (God of Air) - mentioned less than 100 times in Rigveda

Apart from these female divinities were also worshipped like Aditi, Usha, Savitri, etc. Sun God was also worshipped.

Rishi Vishwamitra composed Gayatri Mantra dedicated to the Sun God and Goddess Savitri.

The mode of worship was through reciting prayers, mantras,s and offering sacrifices.

The most important objective of worship was material gain and at no point in time, it was associated with spiritualism.

Later Vedic Age

Introduction

Around 1000 BC Iron was discovered from the places like Atranjikhera and Jakhira in western UP.

With the help of Iron very good quality tools were created with which they cleared the dense forest of Gangetic plain and further penetrated into Eastern India and Central India.

Now the very fertile land was available in this area which was used for aggressive agriculture.

The later Vedic text provides important information about this period.

Though Ganga and Yamuna rivers were mentioned but the most often mentioned river at this time was Gandak as Sadaneera.

Economy

Though cattle was important the land became the most important economic wealth.

Its importance was highlighted with the term Rashtra mentioned in the later Vedic texts.

The most important function of Rajan became organizing battles to secure large tracts of land apart from Yava (Barley), Godhuma (Wheat), Vrihi (Rice) emerged as an important agricultural commodity.

There was no formal system of taxation and but people voluntarily contributed to Rajan in the form of Bhaga or Bali.

Polity

The early political assembly of the Vedic period Sabha and Samiti lost their former relevance, moreover, women were no more part of Sabha.

Vidhata was no more in this period.

The position of Rajan became much more important at this time and he was assisted by nobles and priestly class

The priest became much more important at this time. They came up with elaborate sacrificial rituals, they confer supreme power on Rajan

As follows:-

Rajasuya = It is a Consecration ceremony related to the accession of Rajan to the throne.

Vajpeya = In this ceremony sports event was organized in the form of a Chariot race moreover, this ceremony also meant a public feast

Ashwamedha = It was organized with the purpose of expanding the territory of the kingdom. As per the rituals, a healthy horse was chosen and an incision was made on his body by chief queen Mahishi after which the horse was let loose to wander into the other kingdoms. If the ruler of other kingdoms does not capture the horse then it meant that they have accepted the supremacy of Ashwamedha King, but if they capture the horse then, in this case, they needed to fight with the Ashwamedha King. The ritual was to be completed within 40 days. On the last day of the ceremony, the horse was sacrificed along with 21 sterile cows and more than 200 bulls.

Society

There are a total of 10 mandalas in Rigveda, out of which 2 to 7 were composed in the early Vedic Period and the rest were composed in the Later Vedic Period.

In the Tenth Mandal of Rigveda under Purushshukti, it was mentioned to divide the society into 4 Varnas on the basis of Birth (Ascriptive).

As such following Varna emerged -

Brahmana = emerged from the mouth of the primeval man (Adibrahma)

Kshatriya = emerged from chest and shoulders of primeval man.

Vaishya = emerged from the thigh and abdomen of the primeval man.

Shudra = emerged from the feet of the primeval man

Political Rights were no more available to the women, though they were still allowed to pursue educational discourses. The best example was Vidushi Gargi.

Gandharva Vivah was no more encouraged but many other types of marriages emerged at this point which includes =

Anulom Vivah = higher caste man gets married to lower caste woman

Pratilom Vivah = higher caste woman get married to lower caste man.

Anulom was acceptable in society but not Pratilom.

Instances of Child marriage were also not noticed in this period.

Widow remarriage was allowed under Niyog Vivah.

At this point in time, Brahmins advised exogamy of Gotra in the matters of matrimonial alliance.

Gotra = is the lineage from a common ancestor, particularly a Rishi.

Sixteen Samskara:-

Garbhadhan Samskara

Naamkarana Samskara

Choodakarana Samskara

Upnayana Samskara = sacred thread ceremony, this samskara was only to be observed by Brahmins, Kshatriya, and Vaishya as they were considered as Dwij (consecutively twice-born humans)

Vivah Samskara

Antyeshti Samskara

The ashram vyavastha also started to emerge at this time

Brahmacharya = study period with observing celibacy

Grihastha = married life and its responsibility

Vanaprastha = partial retirement from householder's life in search of enlightenment.

#Note:- The 4th stage was Sanyasa = which was firmly consolidated during the period of Buddha and this stage means complete retirement from householder life to attain enlightenment.

Religious Practice

The early Vedic Gods like Indra, Agni, etc. lost their former relevance.

Prajapati (the creator of the universe) emerged as the most important God.

The concept of God Vishnu and Rudra was also formalized by this time.

The mode of worship was through prayers, recitation of mantras, the performance of Yajna, and offering sacrifices.

The objective of the worship was material gain but at the rear end of the later Vedic Period, a reform movement was initiated by the progressive section of the Indian society.

They started to compose their progressive ideas in Upanishads. Moreover, they emphasized that the objective of the worship must be spiritualism

6th Century BC

Religious-Reform Movement like Buddhism and Jainism

Religious Reforms in 6th Century BC that is Buddhism, Jainism, and Ajivikas (already covered in Art and Culture)

Rise of 16 Mahajanpads - Big territorial states

Introduction

Mahajanpada means big territorial states, which emerged in the Indian subcontinent in the 6th century BC.

The information about these Mahajanpadas can be found in the Buddhist text (Anguttar Nikaya and Mahavastu) and in the Jain Text (Bhagwatisutra)

Initially, Kashi and Koshala were the most powerful mahajanpadas. They owe their richness to high agricultural productivity which led to the development of the textile industry in Kashi and Koshala.

But very soon Magadha started to emerge as the most powerful mahajanpada and over the period it almost annexed all the mahajanpadas.

16 Mahajanpads

Kashi (Varanasi) = Captial (Banaras)

Koshala = Capitals (Shravasti and Saket)

Vatsa = Capital (Kaushambi)

Mall = Capital (Kushinagar / Pava)

Vajji = Capital (Vaishali)

Magadh = Capital (Rajgriha = Patliputra)

Anga = Capital (Champa)

Chedi = Capital (Suktamati)

Shurasena = Capital (Mathura)

Panchala = Capital (Kampilya)

Kuru = Capital (Indraprastha)

Matsya = Capital (Viratnagar)

Kamboj = Capital (Rajpura)

Gandhara = Capital (Taxila)

Assamaka = Capital (Potana)

Avanti = Capitals (Ujjain and Maheshmati)

History of Magadha:

Introduction

Magadha was strategically located. Its capital Rajgirha or Girivraja was surrounded by five mountains which in turn promoted the safety security of its capital.

Magadha was affluent with a large number of river channels which they used for trade, commerce, and transportation.

Magadha was heavily forested which provided very good quality timber

The Himalayan rivers brought very fertile silt and moraine which in turn promoted agricultural productivity.

Magadha had an abode of iron with which they created a very high-quality tool and further strengthened their army.

The rulers of Magadha did not follow the rules of Dharmashastra which prohibited taking interest on loans and also prohibited trade and commerce through the sea route or river route. In other words, the rulers of Magadha were unorthodox and enterprising.

Haryanka Dynasty (554 BC)

Bhimbsar

Founded by Bimbisar in Magadha

He followed the policy of both matrimonial alliance and military annexation.

He captured Mahajanpada of Anga militarily and went for a matrimonial alliance with the three powerful areas which are as follows -

Chellana of Lichchavi

Mahakosaladevi of Kashi

Khema of Madra

He was a contemporary of Buddha and Vardhman Mahavira.

He sent his famous physician Jivaka to cure Avanti ruler Chandpradyot who was suffering from Jaundice.

As such it led to the development of friendly relations between Magadha and Avanti

Ajatshatru (492-460 BC)

He assassinated his father Bimbisar in 492 BC to come to power.

After the assassination of Bimbisar Lichchhavi and Kashi wanted to break away from the association of Magadha. As such it led to war

In the war against Lichchavi Ajatshatru used two innovative war engines - Rathamusala (A revolving mace was attached to a chariot), and Mahashilakantaka (it was a flexible platform to catapult stone on the enemy).

Lichchavi was thoroughly defeated and its capital Vaishali was completely destroyed.

On the other hand, Kashi reconciliation with Magadha.

After the mahaparinirvana of Buddha, his followers persuaded Ajatshatru to convene the 1st Buddhist Council in 483 BC at Rajgriha.

Ajatshatru decided to transfer the capital of Magadha from Rajgriha to Patliputra, but it was not executed due to his death in 460 BC

Last few rulers

The next ruler Udayin constructed the beautiful city of Patliputra.

The last ruler of Hryanka Nagadasak was assassinated by one of his ministers Shishunag who founded the Shishunag Dynasty in Magadha in 400 BC.

Shishunaga Dynasty (412 BC)

Shishunga

Shishunag annexed the area of Avanti and for the time being, shifted the capital of Magadha to Vaishali but after some point of time, there was retransfer of capital to Patliputra.

Important Ruler Kalashoka/Kakavarnin

The most important ruler of this dynasty was Kalashoka also known as Kakavarnin.

He convened the 2nd Buddhist council at Vaishali in which Buddhism got divided into two sects that is Theravada and Mahasanghika.

Later Kalashoka was assassinated by Mahapadmananda in 344 BC.

Nanda Dynasty (344 BC)

Mahapadmananda (Founder)

Mahapadmananda after coming to power took a resolve to eliminate all the Kshatriyas from Magadha.

Due to his aggressive nature, he came to be known as Ekarat or Ugrasena.

Important Ruler Dhananda

The most important and powerful ruler of the Nanda dynasty was Dhananda.

During the tenure of Dhananda ruler of Macedonia Alexander started his campaign of the east.

Battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum River)

In 326 BC the battle of Hydaspes (Jhelum River), he defeated Indian ruler Porus but was impressed by the bravery of Porus, Alexander reinstated Porus to the throne and also made him his ally.

After this episode, Alexander decided to enter into Magadha to fight with Dhananda, but due to continuous wars, his army was not in the position to wage a war immediately as such Alexander decided to suspend the war intention for the time being.

Though Dhananda was saved from Alexander's attack but not from what was going to come next.

Defeat

In 321 BC Chandragupta Maurya defeated Dhananda with the active support of Vishnugupta (Chanakya/Kautilya).

The political mechanization devised by Kautilya against Nanda's ruler is mentioned in the historical text MudraRakshasa written by Vishakhadutta.

Maurya Dynasty (321 BC - 185 BC)

ChangraGupta Maurya

Introduction

In 305 BC he fought with the Greek governor of Alexander Selukos Nikator.

Chandragupta defeated Nikator once again due to Active support of Vsihnugupta (Chanakya)

After the defeat, a friendship treaty was signed between Nikator and Chandragupta Maurya whereby-

Nikator handed over areas west of river Indus to Maurya.
Helina who was the daughter of Nikator was married to Chandragupta and Chandragupta accepted the Greek Ambassador Megasthenes in his court.

Greek ambassodor Megasthenes

Megasthenes wrote a very famous work Indica which provides details about Muarya's Rule

As per the Greek accounts Chandragupta was mentioned as Sandrocottus.

Chandragupta accepted Jainism under the influence of Jain monk Bhadrabahu and later at Sharavanbelagola he died in typical Jain fashion by observing Sallekhana.

Post Maurya Age:

Indigenous Dynasties:

1. Shunga Dynasty (185 BC)

2. Kanavas Dynasty (75 BC)

3. Satvahana Dynasty (1st Century AD)

Outsiders

1. Indo-Greeks (165 BC)

2. Shakas (90 BC)

3. Parthians (25 AD)

4. Kushanas (65 AD)

Gupta Period: (319 AD-550 AD)

Chandragupta I

Samudragupta

Chandragupta II

Kumargupta

Skandgupta

South Indian Dynasties (Contemporary of Guptas):

Sangam Age Dynasties (200-600 AD)

1. The Cholas

2. The Cheras

3. The Pandyas

After Guptas:

Pushyabhuti Dynasty (600 AD) - In North India

Chalukyas - In South India

Pallavas- In South India

After Pushyabhuti Dynasty (750 AD)

1. Pala Dynasty

2. Pratihara-Gurjara

3. Rashtrakuta

In South India:

The Imperial Cholas (890 AD)

Medieval History - Chronology: (2:23 PM)

Delhi Sultanate: (1206-1526 AD)

Slave Dynasty (1206 AD)

Khilji Dynasty (1290 AD)

Tughlaq Dynasty (1320 AD)

Sayyid Dynasty (1414 AD)

Lodhi Dynasty (1451- 1526 AD)

The emergence of Regional Kingdoms:

Vijaynagar Empire (1336 AD)

Bahmani Kingdom (1347 AD)

Mughal Rule: (1526-1707)

Babur (1526-1530)

Humayun (1530-1540)

Sur Dynasty - (1540-1555)

Re-establishment of Mughal (1555)

Akbar (1556)

Jahangir (1605)

Shah Jahan (1627)

Aurangzeb (1658-1707)

Stone Age:

1:08 PM: History of Magadha continued...

2:46 PM: Bindusara (299-273 BC):

After coming to power Bindusar convened the 1st Jain council.

In Greek accounts, he is mentioned as Amitrochats (also referred to as Amitroghat) meaning destroyer of the forts.

He maintained very cordial and friendly relations with the rulers of Egypt Philadelphius Ptolemy and ruler of Syria Antiochus-II

He requested sweet wine, dates, figs, and a philosopher from the Syrian ruler.

Though sweet wine, figs, and dates were provided by the Syrian ruler refused a philosopher as the rule of Syria did not allow it.

Break 2:51 PM / Resumed at 3:07 PM

After the death of Bindusar, his sons started to fight with each other on the question of succession in which it is said Ashoka was successful after killing 100 of his brothers.

In 269 BC Ashoka ascended to the throne. His life cycle can be divided into 3 phases -

1. Kaamashoka = indulge in carnal pleasures

2. Chandashoka = aggressive and brutal expansion

3. Darmashoka = propagation of Dhamma (doctrines of Buddhism)

The details about Ashoka can be traced from his inscriptions and rock edicts. They were written in Prakrit, Greek, and Aramic languages and the script of the inscription was in Brahmi, Kharoshthi, Greek, and Aramic

Generally in his inscriptions, Ashoka was mentioned as Devanampiy Piyadasi (The beloved of the Gods)

In Maski, Nittur, and Udagolam Inscription his original name Ashoka was also mentioned.

In 1837 British archeologist James Princep deciphered the Ashokan inscriptions and the Brahmi Script. After which the information about Ashoka became readily available.

Ashoka is considered as 1st Chakravartin Samrat of India, which means the one who dominated in all four directions.

In the 9th Regnal year of his rule that is 261 BC, Ashoka decided to annex Kalinga. (Rock-Edict-XIII)

The battle was fought on the banks of River Daya at the site of Dhauli. It is said that in this battle about 1 lakh people were massacred.

Seeing the blood-red Daya river Ashoka was filled with guilt and remorse and he decided to abandon the policy of Bherighosh (sound of war drum and equal to military annexation).

After some point in time, he accepted Buddhism and started the policy of Dhammaghosha (socio-cultural annexation), which also meant the spread of Buddhism.

In 250 BC Ashoka convened the 3rd Buddhist Council at Patliputra in which Theravada Buddhism was recognized as the original Buddhism.

Moreover, Abhidhamma Pitaka was compiled in this assembly.

Due to the missionary activity of Ashoka Buddhism survived outside India when it was declining in its own place of birth.

Moreover, due to his initiatives, the original Bodhi tree survived in Anuradhapuram of Sri Lanka.

Ashoka during his lifetime created a wildlife sanctuary for the protection of animals.

After the death of Ashoka in 232 BC the weak successors were not able to defend the Mauryan empire and it start to get fragmented.

The last Mauryan ruler Briahadratha was assassinated by one of his ministers Pushyamitra Sunga which led to the establishment of the Sunga Dynasty in Magadha.

Next Class Topics = Sunga Dynasty, Administration during the Mauryan period, Post Maurya period

Ancient and Medieval History Class 07

GUPTA PERIOD(1:06 PM)

After the demise of Kushanas, a vacuum was created in North India which was later filled by Guptas.

Srigupta was the initial founder followed by Ghatotkatcha, but the third ruler Chandragupta-I is considered the real founder of Guptas in India.

Chandragupta-I:

He came to power in 319 AD and ruled till 335 AD. Following the policy of military annexation, he expanded Gupta territory.

Moreover, he also went for a matrimonial alliance with Licchavi whereby he married Kumaradevi.

To celebrate this marriage, a special type of Kumaradevi gold coin was released. On the obverse side of the coin, the image of the king and the queen was created and on the reverse side of the coin, the image of Goddess-like Laxmi/Parvati/Saraswati was created.

Samudragupta(335-375 AD):

He is considered the second Chakravarti Samrat of India.

He was the most powerful Gupta ruler. Under him, the Gupta territory reached its climax.

His court point Harisena wrote Prayag Prashasti which is Eulogisation of Samudragupta.

He writes Samudragupta won more than 100 battles and never faced a single defeat. Moreover, he also defeated South Indian rulers but did not annex it.

Samudragupta deeply believed in Hinduism and he also performed one Aswamedhayajna.

He was also an accommodative and tolerant ruler. He allowed and supported Srilankan ruler Meghaverman to create a Buddhist monastery at Bodh Gaya.

In some of his gold coins, he was depicted playing the musical instrument Veena on the basis of which it is said that he was an accomplished poet and musician.

Chandragupta-II(385-415 AD)(1:36 PM):

In 385 AD, Chandragupta II ascended to the throne after the defeat of Shakas with the title of Vikramaditya.

He also established the second capital of Guptas in Ujjain. (Prayag was the first capital)

His tenure is considered the golden age of Gupta History.

There was holistic development in many fields at this time like astrology, astronomy, mathematics, metallurgy, Sanskrit literature, temple architecture, medicine, surgery, etc.

He also went for political marriages whereby he married a lady from Nagaland named Kubernaga and he gave the hand of his daughter named Prabhavati to Vakataka ruler Rudrasena.

After the death of Rudrasena, Prabhavati became the de facto ruler under the guidance of Chandragupta-II.

He also maintained many luminaries in his court which included -Kalidas, Amarasimha, Varahmihir, Vararuchi, Dhanvantari, etc.

During his tenure, the Chinese Buddhist traveler Fahien visited India. He wrote his experiences of the Gupta court in his book 'Fu-kuo-ki'.

KumaraGupta(2:12 pm):

Under the influence of Fahein, Kumaragupta established the first modern university of India Nalanda.

NOTE: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN NALANDA AND TAXILA UNIVERSITY(2;16 PM)

Taxila is based on the ancient tradition of learning i.e., Guru-Shishya Parampara, and the whole region is an informal set up of education.It is not one dedicated university in the lines of the modern university.

Nalanda University has features of modern university-had several departments, had well-established physical infrastructure that included a library, hostels, administrative building, etc., had defined syllabus/course curriculum.

Skandagupta(452-467 AD)(2:30 PM):

He was the last important Gupta ruler. He added in the Junagarh inscription that he also repaired the famous Sudarshan lake.

During his tenure, a barbaric tribe Hunas started invading Gupta territory but Skandagupta effectively met the challenge and protected Gupta territory from further invasion.

But later after his death, Hunas reorganized themselves under the leadership of Toramana and Mihirkula.

They thoroughly plundered Gupta territory and looted the Gupta wealth.

It led to the decline and disintegration of Guptas and they finally disappeared by 550 AD.

SALIENT ASPECTS OF GUPTA ADMINISTRATION(2:55 PM):

Generally, the Gupta administration was centralized around its capital and immediate neighborhood. But in the far-flung areas, decentralized administration was there mainly controlled by feudal lords. For the ease of administration, Gupta territory was subdivided into many parts which are as follows:

Bhukti-Province, headed by Bhuktipati.

Vishaya-Districts, headed by Vishayapati.

Vithi-Block, headed by Vithipati.

Gram-Village, headed by Gramani.

Guptas released their stamps which marked political authority whose symbol was Garuda.

Economy during Guptas(3:03 PM):

Land tax was the most important source of income. In normal times, it was fixed at 1/6 of the produce but in difficult times, it can be altered.

Visti was the forced labor or a kind of bonded labor system in the Gupta period.

Guptas continued the practice of granting land not only to the priestly class but also to their officials which further consolidated feudalism in India.

There were special types of grants given to the Brahmins known as Agrahar or Brahmadeya.

UPSC Previous question: How do you justify the view that the level of excellence of Gupta numismatic art is not all noticeable in later times?-A brief idea about this has been given by the faculty. (3:09 PM)

Society during Gupta period(3:28 PM):

Gupta rulers tried to uplift the position of women in society by comparing them with goddesses like Laxmi, Parvati, Saraswati, etc.

But rather than improving the condition of women, it harmed them.

The women of the upper class were not allowed to secure an independent source of living but the women of the lower class were allowed.

Shudras and women were allowed to listen to religious literature.

There was a rapid rise in the institution of prostitution and there was increased stereotyping and objectification of women.

The practice of Satipratha started during this period. The first archeological evidence of Satipratha has been found from Eran inscription dated around 510 AD.

The famous lawgiver of this time Katyayana clearly defined Streedhana. According to him, the wealth given to the girl at the time of her marriage was meant for her maintenance, and only she had the right to sell it or mortgage it.

There was a rapid increase in the number of Chandalas during this period who were a type of Nirvasita Shudra. Many disabilities were imposed on them and they were not allowed to live inside the village or town. They were supposed to live at peripheries or in graveyards. They needed to blow or horn or beat a drum while entering village or town and their most important function was manual scavenging, cleaning drains, menial jobs, etc.

TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: SANGAM PERIOD AND HARSHAVARDHAN

Ancient and Medieval History Class 08

A brief review of the previous class has been given. (1:10 PM)

SANGAM AGE(1:12 PM)

The emergence of the Sangam dynasties is believed to be in 3rd C BC.

In fact, Ashoka also mentioned the Chera rulers as Keralaputra in one of his inscriptions.

By 1st C AD, the three dynasties Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas firmly established their rule in the southern part of the country.

According to the historian Neelkanth Shastry, the Sangam age was between 200 AD-600 AD which denotes the compilation of Sangam literature in three Sangam assemblies held in between this period.

(1)THE CHOLAS(2:19 PM):

Elara was the initial ruler of the Cholas.

Kaveripatnam was the Chola capital. Elara also wanted Srilanka and ruled it for some time.

Karikala:

He was the most important Chola ruler.

He created the Kalanai dam on the Cauvery river-perhaps it was the first dam on any river in India.

Kaveripatnam and Arikademu were two important ports of the Cholas.

(2)THE CHERAS(1:25 PM):

Cheras was also known as Keralaputras.

Karur was their capital.

Udayinjeral was the initial ruler of Cheras.

Muziris was their most important port.

Senguttavan:

He was the important Chera ruler also known as Good Chera or Red Chera.

He constructed the temple of Kannagi(Goddess of Chastity).

He also found the Pattini cult.

(3)THE PANDYAS(1:33 PM):

Mudukumudi was the initial ruler.

Thei capital was Madurai.

Thuthikodi and Korkai were their most important ports.

Nedunjeliyan was the important ruler of this dynasty. Though he was a ruler known for justice, later he is known for the curse of Kannagi.

Under the Pandya rulers, 3 Sangam Assemblies were held which led to the compilation of Sangam literature and later two most popular Tami epics-Silapatthikaram written by IIlango Adigal and Manimekalai written by Chattanar.

All three dynasties were quite rich. They had trade relations with the Roman world and the Arab world. All three dynasties are endowed with many natural resources like cotton, spices, pearl, ivory, etc. which they sold to the Arab and Roman traders.

PUSHYABHUTI DYNASTY(1:53 PM)

Prabhakarvardhan founded this dynasty which was based in Thaneswar in Haryana.

After his death, his son Rajyavardhan became the ruler.

Shashanka Gauda of Bengal was the biggest advisory of Vardhans.

Shashank killed Maukhari ruler of Kannauj Grahavarman and captured Rajyashree from Kannauj.

Moreover, he was also successful against Rajyavardhan and treacherously killed Rajyavardhan.

In this situation, the young Harshavaedhan ascended to the throne and concentrated on getting back Kannauj and also releasing his sister Rajayashree from Sashank's captivity.

Sashank was a formidable enemy but after a long wait, Harshavardhan was successful against him and now Kannauj became the capital of Pushyabhuti.

Harshavardhan(2:07 PM):

He was an ambitious ruler and he wanted to extend his territory south of the Narmada river also where he fought with the Chalukhya ruler Pulakeshin II.

Harashavardhan was thoroughly defeated in battle but it resulted in a friendship treaty which was mentioned in Aihole inscription whereby both rulers promised each that in the future they will not venture into each others' territory.

It is said that inscription was written by Ravikirti who was a court poet of Chalukya and the inscription was written in Sanskrit.

During the tenure of Harshavardhan, the Chinese Buddhist traveler Hiuen Tsang visited Kannauj.

He wrote his experience in Harshavardhan court in his book Si-yu-ki. Hiuen Tsang mentions that there was a strict provision of punishment even for the pettiest of the crimes in Harshvardhan's rule, but at the same point in time, the streets of Kannauj were not free from robbers and he himself was robbed on the streets of Kannauj.

Harshavardhan was a devotee of Lord Shiva and the Sun. Under the influence of Hiuen Tsang, he also accepted Mahayana Buddhism.

To showcase his support to Mahayana Buddhism, Harshavardhan convened two councils-at Prayag and Kannauj. In these councils when some gave elaborate lectures on Mahayana Buddhism which is considered as shot in arms for Mahayana Buddhism.

As per Hieun Tsang, in the latter part of his life, Harshavardhan gave up all his personal wealth in charity and he ruled like a monk.

Another Chinese envoy led by Itsing came to Harshavardhan's court but by that time, he was dead.

PALLAVAS AND CHALUKYAS(2:31 PM)

By the beginning of 7th C AD, these two dynasties were firmly established in the place of Cholas.

Right from the beginning, both the dynasties started to fight with each other to control the fertile Doabs of rivers like Tungabhadra, Krishna, and Cauvery.

In the very first battle, Pulakeshin-II defeated Pallava ruler Mahendravarman and captured the area of Vengi.

The area was given to Vishnuvardhan(brother of Pulakeshin-II). Later then he emerged as the eastern branch of Chalukya.

After the death of Mahendravarman, his son Narasimhavarman defeated Chalukya ruler Pulakeshin-II and captured his capital at Badami(Vatapi).

To celebrate this victory, he took the title of Vatapikondi or the conqueror of Vatapi/Badami.

Both the dynasties are remembered for their contribution to the temple architecture of India. Pallavas initiated the Dravida style of temple and Chalukyas initiated the Vesara style of temple.

After the demise of the Pushyabhuti dynasty, a vacuum was created in North and Central India by the end of 7th C AD. This vacuum was filled by the following three dynasties by 750 AD.

(1) PALA DYNASTY OF EAST(3:09 PM):

Gopala was the founder of this dynasty in 751 AD.

Dharmapala was the most important ruler of this dynasty.

In his regime, Vajrayana Buddhism was highly popularised and as such, it reached the areas like Tibet.

Dharmapala granted 200 villages to Nalanda University for its maintenance and upkeep.

He also founded 3 popular universities in eastern India which are Vikramashila, Oddantpuri, and Somarupa.

Pala rulers were the first to initiate miniature paintings in India based on Buddhism.

Vajrayana Buddhism:

Vajrayana Buddhism is considered as the Tantric sect of Buddhism whose practices are quite similar to Hinduism.

They also worshipped female deities like Tara, Mahamayuri, Akshobhaya, etc.

In the modern world, it is mainly practiced in the area of Tibet.

(2)PRATIHARA-GURJARA DYNASTY(3:22 PM):

They were devotees of Lord Laxman. As such, they took the title of Pratihar means Protector.

There is no clarity regarding their initial ruler, but it is believed that Nagabhatta was the initial ruler.

The most important ruler of this dynasty was Mihirbhoja.

He was a devotee of Lord Vishnu and he took the title of Adivaraha.

He also maintained one of the strongest armies of that time as he was able to procure good-quality horses from Central Asia.

He initiated Maru-Gurjara style of the temple which was later incorporated into the Solanki style.

(3)RASHTRAKUTA OF CENTRAL INDIA(3:31 PM):

This dynasty was founded by Dantidurg in 757 AD.

The second ruler of this dynasty Krishna-I constructed the famous temple of Ellora known as Kailashanath temple.

The most important ruler of this dynasty was Amoghavarsha.

During his regime, the Kannada language was patronized and he himself wrote the first poetics of Kannada KavirajaMarg.

Perhaps, he was the second monarch of India who ended his life by observing Sallekhana.

Note: Pampa, Ponna, and Ranna are the three earliest important figures in Kannada literature.

IMPERIAL CHOLA(3:40 PM)

This dynasty emergy by 890 AD was established by Vijayalaya who was the courtier in the Pallava regime.

Parantaka-I and Aditya I was initial rulers.

The initial most important ruler was Raja Raja -I Chola.

Raja Raja -I Chola:

He annexed the northern part of Srilanka. He defeated Pandyas at Madurai and Cheras at Trivandrum and annexed a considerable part of their territory.

His most important contribution was the construction of the Brihadeshwara temple of Tanjore which was considered as the climax of the Dravida style of temple.

He was succeeded by Rajendra-I Chola.

Rajendra-I Chola:

He completely annexed Srilanka, Pandya, and Chera kingdom. He also crossed the Gangetic Delta and defeated Mahipala.

To celebrate this victory, he created a new city on the banks of Cauvery known as GangaiKonda Cholapuram.

Perhaps, he was the first Indian ruler who crossed the Bay of Bengal and attacked the cities of Shrivijaya in the Malay Peninsula.

It led to the beginning of cultural exchange between India and the Malay Peninsula.

TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: CONTINUATION OF IMPERIAL CHOLAS

Ancient and Medieval History Class 09

CONTINUATION OF IMPERIAL CHOLAS

CHOLA ADMINISTRATION(1:05 PM):

Chola rulers initiated decentralization in their territory.

For the ease of administration, many sub-divisions were created and sufficient power and autonomy were given to the officers in the respective sub-divisions. These sub-divisions are as follows:

Cholamandalam-Chola Empire.

Mandalam-Province

Valanadu-Block

Nadu-Group of villages

Kottam-Small village

Ur-Smallest administration division

Perhaps, Cholas were the first rulers who started to act as a banking and financial institution. They provided loans to the people on nominal interest rates.

Note: Right from ancient times, Shreni was the organization involved in banking functions. It was a group of rich traders and merchants who also controlled the trade and formulated the rules of trade. The head of Shreni was generally known as Jyesthaka.

Perhaps, Cholas were the first rulers who started to write inscriptions regarding rainwater harvesting.

Cholas were big temple builders, the temple was not only a place of worship but also the center of education. Moreover, temples were created close to habitations so that market activity can be promoted.

MEDIEVAL INDIA

ISLAMIC INVASIONS IN INDIA(1:28 PM):

(1)Invasion of Mohd-bin-Kasim:

The first Islamic invasion happened in 712 AD. The ruler of the Umayid dynasty Mohd-bin-Kasim captured the port of Deval from Sindh ruler Dahir.

After eliminating Dahir, he established his rule in Sindh which did not continue for a very long time, and later Mohd-bin-Kasim was eliminated because of some dispute with Caliphate.

The major impact of this invasion was the spread of Islam in North-Western parts of India.

(2)Invasion of Mahmood of Ghazni:

At the end of 10th C AD, a volatile situation arose in West Asia ruled by the Samanid dynasty.

The tribesmen of Central Asia started to invade the Samanid dynasty. Moreover, these Central Asian tribesmen were followers of nature.

In this situation, there was the need for a personality who can safeguard the territory of Samanid and protect Islam. As such, the first Ghazi of Samanid was Md. of Ghazni.

Ghazni was supported by his court poet Firdausi who wrote Shahnama. Shahnaman created an indelible impact on the minds of Central Asians and the majority of them accepted Islam who later became the strongest defenders of Islam and strongest crusaders from Islam.

To fund his activity, Gazni invaded 17 times. His major target was the rich temples of India and his last attack was on the temple of Somnath in 1025 AD.

Though Ghazni is considered a cultural regenerator in human history including Indian history, he did one of the most sinful crimes for which he can never be forgiven.

(3)Invasion of Mohd Ghuri:

By the beginning of the 12th C, Smanids were replaced by Seljuks in West Asia.

After some point in time, Seljuks got divided into two branches-Khwarizmi and Ghurid.

On the question of Syria, they fought with each other in which the Khwarizmi branch defeated Ghurids.

As such the Ghurid ruler Mohd Ghuri decided to divert his attention to the Indian sub-continent.

He started his campaign in India in the 1170s. Initially, he annexed Multan and Ucch, but he was defeated by the Gujarati ruler Bhimdev Solanki.

On the question of Tabar-i-Hind(Modern Bhatinda), he fought with Indian ruler Prithviraj Chauhan.

Meanwhile, when Ghuri was overrunning Indian territory, the north, north-west and central part of India was ruled by any Rajput rulers who are as follows:

Chauhans of Ajmer

Chalukya Solanki of Gujarat

Chandela of Bundelkhand

Paramara of Malwa

Tomar of Delhi

Gahdaula of Kannauj

Chauhans of Ajmer were the most powerful of all the Rajput rulers.

In 1191, the first battle of Tarain was fought between Prithviraj Chauhan and Ghuri in which Ghuri was thoroughly defeated.

Meanwhile, there was acrimony between Gahdaula ruler Jayachand and Chauhan. The daughter of Jaichand Sangogita eloped with Prithviraj Chauhan against the wishes of her father.

This incident was fully utilized by Ghuri to provoke Jayachand against Prithviraj Chauhan. As such Jayachand hatched a conspiracy against Prithviraj Chauhan.

As such in the second battle of Tarain in 1192, Prithviraj Chauhan was thoroughly defeated and later on executed.

In 1194, Ghuri sent his trusted slave Qutubuddhin Aibak to fight with Jayachandra. As such in the battle of Chandawar 1194, Jayachand was killed by Aibak which led to the extension of Turkish rule in India.

Ghuri was killed by Khokhars when he was returning from India. In this situation, Aibak declared the formation of the Delhi Sultanate in 1206 AD.

DELHI SULTANATE (2:29 PM)

Slave Dynasty(1206-1290)

Khilji Dynasty(1290-1320)

Tughlaq Dynasty(1320-1414)

Sayyid Dynasty(1414-1451)

Lodi Dynasty(1451-1526)

(1)SLAVE DYNASTY(2:33 PM):

Qutubuddin Aibak(1206-1210):

At this time, the capital of the Sultanate was Lahore.

He was popularly known as Lakh Baksha which means he often gave charity in the amounts of lakh.

Aibak was an ardent follower of Sufi saint Qutubuddin Bhaktiyar Kaki. He started the construction of Qutub Minar in the memory of this Sufi saint.

In 1210, in an unfortunate incident ie. while playing the game of Chauhan(Horse Polo), he fell from his horse and died.

After the death of Aibak, there was a dispute of succession between Yalduz, Qubacha, and Iltutmish in which finally Iltutmish was victorious.

Iltutmish(1210-1236):

He was considered the real founder of the Delhi Sultanate.

He took the following initiatives-

Transferred capital from Lahore to Delhi.

On the lines of the Arabic coinage system, he released the official currency of the Sultanate i.e., Silver Tanka and Copper Jittal.

He also created a group of 40 nobles known as Turkan-i-Chahalgani or Chalisa to assist the Sultan in his official function.

He also initiated the Iqta system of land revenue administration.

IQTA SYSTEM(3:06 PM):

The entire sultanate land was divided into two categories i.e., Iqta land and Khalisa land.

Khalisa land was the crown or royal land.

The revenue generated from this land was meant for the personal expense of the Sultan.

The majority of the land was in the Iqta category and this land was granted to the nobles and the military officers, who are generally referred to as Iqta holders.

The revenue generated from these lands was used for paying the salary working under them, meeting the expenses and the surplus amount was submitted to the royal treasury.

Before his death, Iltutmish overlooked the claims of all his sons and appointed his daughter Razia as the next Sultan.

RAZIYAH SULTAN((3:18 PM):

She was a bold lady. She discarded Purdah and started to wear the attire of Sultan.

She was a progressive ruler and appointed a person of African(Abyssinian) origin Yakut to a very high official position.

It was not liked by the group of nobles and they started to provoke many governors of the Sultanate.

As such the governor of Punjab Altunia imprisoned Raziyah, but Raziyah saved herself by marrying Altunia.

But she could not be saved from the conspirators who gave the task of killing Raziyah to the decoits.

As such Raziyah was called at Kaithal in 1240 AD.

On her death, the famous historian Minas-us-Shiraz wrote-"Raziyah had all the capabilities of becoming a very successful ruler but she had only one weakness that is she was a woman.

After Raziyah's death, the group of nobles acquired so much that they started to appoint sultans according to their whims and fancies.

In quick succession, three rulers were appointed-Bahram Shah(1240-42), Mashud Shah(1242-46), and Naseeruddin Ahmed(1246-65).

Naseeruddin Ahmed created the post of Deputy Sultan. One of the occupants of this post was Ghiyas-Uddin Balban who later in 1265 became Delhi Sultan.

Balban (1265-1286)(3:34 PM):

He was the most powerful ruler of the Sultanate.

He proposed the Divine Theory of Kingship whereby he proclaimed that the Sultan is the shadow of Allah on planet Earth(Jille-ilahi).

He also proclaimed that he has a lineage of Iranian hero Afrashiyab.

He introduced some of the Iranian etiquettes in the Delhi Sultanate court which are as follows: Sijda-Bowing down before Sultan; Paibos-Kissing the feet of Sultan.

He also introduced the Iranian New year festival Nauroz in India.

Balban abolished the group of Turkani Chahalgani and he created a centralized department of the military known as Diwan-i-Ariz.

To tackle the problem of Mewatis, he cleared the dense forests of Delhi.

During his tenure, one of his general Jalaluddin Khilji, a branch of Mongols which increased Khilji's popularity.

After the death of Balban, one of his sons Kaiqabahd became Sultan who was eliminated by Jalaluddin Khilji in 1219.

TOPIC FOR THE NEXT CLASS: CONTINUATION OF DELHI SULTANATE

Ancient and Medieval History Class 10

A brief overview of previous class

Khilji dynasty(1290-1320AD)(5:16:00PM)

Jalaluddin Khilji founded this dynasty in 1290 AD.

After some point in time, he led an expedition to Bengal. While he was returning from Bengal, he was invited to Awadh by his nephew Alauddin Khilji where he was hacked to death which led to the elevation of Alauddin Khilji to the Delhi Sultanate throne.

Alauddin after coming to power decided to annex Gujarat from where he brought a very capable military leader Malik Kafur (Hazar Dinari).

Later Malik Kafur became the General of Alauddin's army.

After Gujarat, Alauddin Khilji led an expedition to the Ranthambhor fort. He led a siege of 3 months. Finally one day he was successful to enter the Ranthambhor fort. The men of Alauddin Khilji selectively started to kill the men of the fort. In this situation, the women of the fort started to doubt the intention of Khilji. In this situation, they decided to perform en masse Jauhar to safeguard their dignity and honour.

This incident of Jauhar was hailed by court poet of Khilji- Amir Khusrau as an act of bravery.

After the annexation of Ranthambhor, he also annexed Chittorgarh.

After Chittorgarh, Alauddin Khilji decided to invade the territories in South India. The South Indian campaign of Alauddin was led by his General Malik Kafur who invaded Devagiri of Yadava, then Warangal of Kakatiya, Dwarasamudra of Hoysala and Maabar of Pandyas.

After the death of Alauddin in 1316, Malik Kafur tried his best to save the sultanate for Khiljis but in 1320, Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq founded the Tughlaq dynasty in Delhi.

Initiatives of Alauddin Khilji:

Alauddin is often referred to as the master of market reform. He took the following initiatives during his lifetime:

1. He started measuring the land before imposing the taxes.

2. He also increased the land revenue to 50%.

3. He divided the market into 3 categories - clothes and footwear; food grains, vegetables and fruits; animal trade and the slave trade.

4. He also centrally fixed the rates of basic commodities (this step was meant for making available the basic commodity to his Persian and Turkish soldiers at a cheaper rate).

5. He used the services of the Banjara community for trade.

6. He standardised all the weights and measures to curb corruption.

7. He started the Dagh system for the branding of horses.

8. He started the Huliya system to note down the physical appearance and features of soldiers in a register.

Tughlaq dynasty(6:21:00PM)

Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq founded this dynasty in 1320AD.

He led an expedition to Bengal. From Bengal, he received a large number of Elephants as war booty. One of his sons, Jauna Khan, created a very large wooden platform just before Delhi to welcome the winning army. When Elephants mounted on the wooden platform, the platform collapsed due to their weight which also led to the death of Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.

It led to the elevation of Jauna Khan as the Delhi Sultan with the name of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq

Muhammad Bin Tughlaq:

He was a man of contradiction(bipolar). On one hand, he seemed to be a scholar of many languages and a man of innovation. But on the other hand, he was short-tempered, erratic and notorious for giving extreme and brutal capital punishment.

During his lifetime, he took the following initiatives, but unfortunately, he failed in most of them:

1. He increased the rate of taxes in Ganga and Yamuna Doab. (the fertile region between the two rivers). But due to severe famine and drought, people refused to pay the tax, as such when they were coerced, they revolted. In this scenario, the increased tax was withdrawn.

2. The Mongol threat was still looming on Delhi and moreover, Mohammad Bin Tughlaq wanted to create a capital that must have a central location. As such he decided to shift the capital from Delhi to Daulatabad(Devgiri). But this experiment also failed due to the scarcity of water at Daulatabad and the nobles started to feel nostalgic about Delhi.

3. Khorasan expedition

After the death of the ruler of Khorasan, court factionalism precipitated. As such Mohammad Bin Tughlaq thought that it is an opportunity to annex Khorasan. The preparation for the war started and soldiers were given a 2-month advance salary to keep their motivation high but later, the war did not happen on the ground. As such Mohammad Bin Tughlaq incurred heavy losses.

4. Kurachil expedition

To punish the rebels Kurachil expedition started but it also failed.

5. At this point in time, there was a scarcity of silver all over the world. In this scenario, Muhammad bin Tughlaq decided to issue token currency of copper and bronze on the face value of silver. But this experiment also failed due to the forging of currency.

6. He also established a department of agriculture known as Diwan-i-Kohi.

7. A credit facility known as Sondhar was also created. It gave cheap agricultural loans Taccavi to the people.

During his tenure, the famous Moroccan Arab traveller Ibn Batuta came to Tughlaq's court. Upon his arrival, he was given the status of chief Qazi(judicial officer) of Delhi. His tenure at Tughlaq's court was full of ups and downs. He wrote about his experience of Tughlaq's court in his book Rehala.

During his lifetime about 22 to 23 revolts happened. But Muhammad Bin Tughlaq was able to suppress only two. Moreover, it also led to the foundation of the Vijaynagar kingdom in 1336 by Harihara and Bukka Raya and the Bahmani kingdom in 1347 by Allauddin Bahman Shah.

Topics for the next class- Firoz Shah Tughlaq, Sayyids and the Lodhis.

Ancient and Medieval History Class 11

The class started at (1:10 PM)

Firoz Shah Tughlaq (1:14 PM)

Firoz shah Tughlaq became the next ruler.

He had to face many challenges from the beginning.

The most important was restoring the lost glory of the Delhi sultanate.

He took various initiatives

He made the Iqta system hereditary in nature.

He removed many taxes and implemented only a few and which are as follows.

Jizya- Earlier Brahmins from Hindu society were exempted from paying Jizya but now they also brought into the fold of Jizya tax

Kharaj- A land tax.

ZakatTax on the income of Muslims to promote Islam.

KhumsaThe wealth tax looted in war.

He also created sub canals in the Northwestern part for irrigation.

He also created a department known as Dewan-i-Khairat. It was meant for providing financial help to the poor people in the marriage of their daughters.

Firoz shah Tughlaq also planted many mango gardens.

He also abolished all extreme types of capital punishment which existed during the regime of Mohamad bin Tughlaq.

After the death of Firoz shah Tughlaq the weak successors were not able to defend the Tughlaq’s rule and their weakness was exposed during the invasion of Tamerlane to the entire world.

One of the generals of Amir Timur or Tamerlane Khizr khan uprooted Tughlaq and founded the Sayyid dynasty.

Sayyid dynasty (1414- 1451) (1:30 PM)

Khizr khan was the only important leader of this dynasty who declared himself to be Raiyat-i-ala (caretaker) of the Timur’s Son Shahrukh.

Lodi dynasty (1451-1526) (1:33 PM)

Bahlul Lodi was the founder of this dynasty and it was the first Afghan dynasty in the Delhi sultanate

He led down the rule that the all-important positions in administration must be given to friends and family.

Late the Next ruler Sikandar Lodi diluted this rule.

Sikandar Lodhi founded the city of Agra

He also came up with a new unit of measurement known as Gaj-i-Sikandari

The last ruler of this dynasty was Ibrahim Lodhi and he was also the strongest ruler.

Ibrahim Lodi was aggressive and disrespectful to his people.

As such one of his governors Daulat Khan Lodhi invited the rule of zahiruddin Babur to fight with Ibrahim Lodhi.

Initially Babur was not ready but later on assured that Rana Sanga of Mewar would also be supporting the Babur.

Then he decided to fight with Lodi’s as such first battle of Panipat 1526 was fought in which Babur was victorious because of two reasons

For the first time canons were used in India.

The intelligent strategy of Tulughma (using trenches and keeping soldiers in the trenches. Trenches were created in a circular pattern) was devised by Babur

Administrative departments of Delhi sultanate (1:49 PM)

Diwan-i-wijarat- Finance department.

Diwan-i- InshaPostal and correspondence

Diwan-i-RisalatFor ecclesiastical matter(foreign affairs for the religious matter )

Diwan-i-QaziJudicial matters.

Diwan-i-MustakrajDepartment of collection of arrears.

Diwani-MunihaDepartment of intelligence (network of spies)

Diwan-i-BandganDepartment of slaves

Mughal period (1:58 PM)

From the paternal side lineage traced back to Turkish.

From the maternal side lineage traced back to Mongols.

Babur after laying the foundation of his rule in 1527 fought with the Rana Sanga of Mewar in the battle of Khanwa

Babur was successful but not entirely.

Next year in 1528 Babur fought with medina rai of chanderi and captured Chanderi.

He also pushed the Afghan rulers to Bihar. After he died in 1530 his son, Humayun ascended to the throne.

Humayun from the very beginning faced many challenges

Which included internal as well as external challenges.

His brothers Kamran, Askari, and Hindal started demanding the division of Mughal territory as such Humayun gave the area of Kabul and west of river Indus to his brothers.

Though he was successfully able to meet the challenge of Gujrati ruler Bahadur shah However he was not able to defend himself against the Afghan ruler of Bihar Sher shah Suri who consequently defeated Humayun in 1539 and 1530 at the battle of Kanauj and Chausa.

Sur empire (2:20 PM)

He was the most important ruler of this dynasty

He took many initiatives which were later elaborated and continued by the Mughal rulers.

He created the first Grand Highway of India running from Kolkata to Peshawar and it was known as Badshah road or grand trunk road.

It also included four peripheral highways connecting with it.

He created the base of provincial administration which was later elaborated by Akbar.

On the sides of highways, he created Sarai (resting places for Travelers).

He was also considered as the father of the postal system in India as such he created Dak Khanas in far-flung areas.

He released the official currency which was Rupiah made from silver and Daam made from copper.

He was the first Islamic ruler who started codifying Sharia for adjudication

In an unfortunate event that is the kalinjer explosion Sher shah Suri died.

In 1555 Humayun returned back from IRAN.

With the support of Iranian ruler Shah Tamashp, he defeated the last Suri ruler and re-established Mughals in India.

In 1556 Humayun died in an unfortunate incident when he fell from observatory Sher-Mandal.

At this point, one of the close aid of Suri’s Hemu captured Delhi.

This led to the 2nd battle of Panipat 1556 between HEMU and Mughal general bairam khan.

Bairam defeated the Hemu and killed him.

Jalaluddin Akbar (1556-1605) (2:42 PM)

Akbar at his time of elevation as Mughal emperor was minor.

Initially he was under the regency of Bairam khan.

In 1560 bairam khan retired and was also assassinated. After which there was the interference of Mahama Anga in Mughal politics. Which continued till 1562.

From 1562 onwards Akbar started to take his full-fledged decisions.

Akbar annexed malwa, Gujarat, Kashmir, Kabul, Bihar, Bengal, and parts of Ahmednagar.

With Rajput rulers he followed the policy of negotiation whereby it was maintained that if Rajput rulers accept the supremacy of Akbar, then they would be given be full autonomy in their areas.

As such majority of Rajput rulers accepted this proposal except one that is Maharana Pratap of Mewar.

This led to the battle of Haldighati in 1576 fought between Maharana and Mansingh.

But this war was inconclusive and Mewar could not be annexed.

Administration under Akbar.

The Akbar divided the Mughal empire into 16 provinces known as Suba which was further subdivided into many subdivisions which are as follows,

Provinces were also known as SUBA

Sarkar (Zones)

Pargana(district)

Mahal (block or group of villages)

Gram(villages)

Economic policies of Akbar

Raja Todarmal who was the finance minister of Akbar came up with the progressive system of taxation known as the Dahishala system. As per this system, the land was surveyed and classified into 4 categories based on fertility.

POLAJ LandMost fertile, cultivated every year, and maximum tax

Parati land -left fallow for one year to regain fertility. Tax payment only in the year of cultivation

Cachar land – left fallow for 2 years to regain fertility. Taxed only in the years of cultivation.

Banjar land – left fallow for five or more years to regain fertility. The least amount of tax is only in the year of cultivation.

Video of Classical dances of Art and culture played (3:39 PM)

The topic of the Next class- Rest part of the Mughals.

Ancient and Medieval History Class 12

A brief overview of previous class

Mansabdari system(1:04:00pm)

Mansabdari was the system of administration in the Mughal Empire.

Under this system, all the officers were known as Mansabdars.

It had two components which are as follows:

1. Zat

It indicated the personal rank of a Mansabdar in the official hierarchy.

The rank ranged from 100 to 7000 with 100 being the lowest and 7000 being the highest.

According to the rank, a Mansabdar was paid a salary.

The salary was given in two forms, that is, cash and jagir.

Those who were given cash salaries were known as Naqdi Mansabdar.

Those were given jagir as salary was known as Jagirdari Mansabdar.

There were two types of jagirs that were granted:

a. Tankhwah jagir

It was given for a temporary period and to a majority of jagirdars.

b. Vatan jagir

It was given for the permanent period to the hereditary landlord class of India.

2. Sawar

Sawar indicated the number of soldiers and horses to be maintained by a Mansabdar in the Army for the service of the Mughal monarch.

Socio-religious initiatives of the Akbar(1:16:00PM)

1. Akbar stopped the practice of converting prisoners of war into the Islamic faith.

2. He abolished pilgrimage tax and discriminatory jizyah tax.

3. Akbar created Ibadat khana for religious discussion and deliberations with the representatives of different religions. The outcome of this discussion was new theology of Akbar known as Din-i-Ilahi. (also known as Tauhid-i-Ilahi).

4. With this new theology Akbar wanted to spread the message of Suhl-i-Kuhl which means universal peace and brotherhood.

5. Akbar released the decree of Mazhar whereby he became the final adjudicating authority for any religious dispute and interpretation of Islam.

6. Akbar also funded the construction of the Keshav Raya temple of Mathura(little contribution) and Govind Deva temple of Vrindavan(full contribution).

After the death of Akbar, prince Salim ascended to the throne with the title of Jahangir.

Jahangir(1605-1627)(1:32:00PM)

One of the most important political achievements of Jahangir was the annexation of Mewar.

By 1615 Jahangir granted full concessions to the British East India Company.

In 1611, Jahangir got married to Nur Jahan. She was an ambitious lady and very soon she took the entire administration in her hands.

Due to her influence, her father Mirza Ghiyas Baig became the Wazir of the kingdom and her brother Asaf-Ud-Daulah became Khan-i-Saman(head of royal family and treasury).

Nur Jahan also created a small kitchen cabinet Junta to run the Mughal administration.

After the death of Jahangir with the support of Asaf-Ud-Daulah, Prince Khurram ascended to the throne with the title of Shah Jahan.

Shah Jahan(1627-1658)(1:42:00PM)

The most important political achievement of Shah Jahan was the complete annexation of Ahmadnagar.

Shah Jahan's tenure is mainly remembered for his architectural initiatives. In the memory of his beloved wife Anjuman Bano Begum, he constructed the Taj Mahal, the climax of Mughal architecture.

During the lifetime of Shah Jahan, the war of succession started in which Aurangzeb killed his brother Dara Shikoh and house arrested Shah Jahan at Red Fort, Agra.

He ascended to the throne with the title of Alamgir Aurangzeb.

Aurangzeb(1659-1707)(1:52:00PM)

Aurangzeb was under the influence of orthodox Maulavis and Ulemas. As such, he started to patronise the orthodox version of Islam. He reimposed the Jizyah tax and banned the Hindu festivals of Diwali and Holi. He also destroyed many Hindu and Jain temples of that time which included :

a. Somnath,

b. Kashi Vishwanath

c. Keshav Rai

d.Govind deva temple

The biggest adversary of Aurangzeb was Chhatrapati Shivaji of Marathawada

Chhatrapati Shivaji:

Shivaji was the son of the Konkan ruler Shahji. Shahji gave the area of Poona to his neglected wife Jijabai for the maintenance of his son.

Shivaji was raised under the guidance of Dadaji Kondadev. He learnt the art of guerilla warfare with his Guru Samarth Ramadas.

In 1659, Shivaji beat Bijaputi general Afzal khan using the strategy of Guerilla warfare.

Alarmed by this situation Aurangzeb sent his general Shaista Khan to fight with Shivaji but once again Shivaji defeated Shaista Khan and injured him seriously.

In this situation, Aurangzeb persuaded Raja Jai Singh of Amer to fight with Shivaji. Jai Singh with careful preparation defeated Shivaji in the Battle of Purandhar(1665).

As per the terms of the treaty, Shivaji handed over 23 out of 35 forts to Jai Singh.

He also agreed to appear in Aurangzeb's court at Agra. But Aurangzeb treacherously arrested Shivaji in Agra. Later with the help of local people, Shivaji escaped from Aurangzeb's captivity and he took a resolve to make Deccan impenetrable for Aurangzeb.

In 1674, Shivaji celebrated his coronation ceremony.

In 1680, Shivaji died due to natural illness. After his death, the formidable challenge to the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb came to an end and he took a sigh of relief.

In 1686, Aurangzeb captured Bijapur and Golconda in 1687.

Regional Kingdom of Vijayanagara(2:16:00PM)

Vijayanagara kingdom was founded in 1336 by two brothers Harihara and Bukka Raya with the help of their Guru Madhava Devaranya.

From 1336 to 1640, four dynasties ruled in Vijayanagara in the following sequence:

1. Sangama Dynasty

2. Suluva Dynasty

3. Tuluva Dynasty

4. Aravidu Dynasty

The most important ruler of the Vijaynagar kingdom was Krishna Deva Raya of the Tuluva dynasty.

Krishna Deva Raya(1509-1529):

Babur in his autobiography Tuzk-i-Babari mentioned that Krishna Deva Raya was the most powerful and most respected ruler of India.

Moreover, the majority of historians regard him as the most enlightened ruler of the Medieval period.

He captured the Raichur fort from the Bijapur ruler and also reinstated a suitable candidate to the throne of Bijapur. After this episode, he came to be known as Yavana Samrat Sthapanacharya.

He was a very progressive ruler and appointed women to many important positions like poets, soothsayers, wrestlers, etc.

He also married a prostitute.

Although he was a deep believer of Hindusim, he was quite secular in public life.

He appointed a large number of Muslims to important official positions.

His life is also remembered for his contribution to art and literature. For example, he constructed:

a. the Veerbhadra temple and Hazar Ram Swami temple at Lepakshi

b. Virupaksh temple of Hampi

c. He renovated the Tirumala Tirupati Devasthana(a life-size image of Krishna Deva Raya is found here).

He also promoted and patronised Sanskrit, Kannada, Tamil and Telugu literature.

He himself was a great scholar of Sanskrit and Telugu. He wrote a famous Telugu poetry Amuktamalyada.

His period is considered the Golden Age of Telugu literature.

He maintained 8 luminaries of Telugu known as Ashtadiggaj in his court.

The most famous of them was Peddana, considered the father of Telugu literature. Another famous luminary was Tenali Raman.

Foreign travellers who visited Vijaynagara:

1. Abdur Razzak of Samarkand(Persia/Iran)

2. Nicolo Conti of Italy

3. Visitors from Portugal- Fernao Nuniz, Domingo Paes, Duerte Barbossa.

Bahmani Kingdom(2:52:00PM)

It was founded by one of the nobles of Muhammad Bin Tughlaq, Alludin Shah Bahman in 1347.

Bahmani kingdom reached its climax under the guidance of its Vizier Mahmud Gawan. He immensely contributed to education and opened secular Madrassa.

But then ruler of Bahamani, Mahmud Shah 3 was circumspect about the intention of Mahmud Gawan and eliminated him after which the fall of the Bahmani kingdom started.

By 1510, the Bahmani kingdom got divided into the following Houses:

a. Bijapur

b. Golconda

c. Ahmad Nagar

d. Bidar

e. Berar

In 1565, all the Bahmani Houses got united to fight with the Vijaynagar kingdom. As such after the Batlle of Talicota in 1565, decline of the Vijaynagar kingdom also started.

Kakatiya dynasty(3:01:00PM)

It emerged in the 12th century.

They were devotees of Goddess Kakati(a form of Shakti).

Its capital was Orugalli(Warangal).

The most important port was Motupalli.

Ganapati Deva was the most important ruler. He appointed his daughter Rudrama Devi as the next monarch. During her tenure, the famous traveller Marco Polo visited Warangal.

The famous Kohinoor diamond originally belonged to the Kakatiya rulers. The last Kakatiya ruler Prataparudra gifted the Kohinoor to Allauddin Khilji.

Later, during the tenure of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, Pratap Rudra was killed which led to the annexation of Kakatiya into Tughlaq territory

Metaphysical Thoughts of Buddhism (5:07:00 PM)

The origin of the Universe: Buddhists believed that the universe was created on the laws of nature.

Veda: Buddhists rejected the divine authority of Veda.

God: Buddha was agnostic on the question of god. He never answered the question related to God.

Rebirth: They believe in rebirth.

Soul: Buddhists did not believe in the permanent soul or eternal soul. They believe in Anicca (Non-permanence).

They further maintain that it is the Karmic consciousness or Panch skandh which takes rebirth.

Bodhisattva: Bodhisattvas were the previous birth of the Buddha.

They are capable of achieving Nirvana but they postpone their own Nirvana to help all sentient beings on the planet earth.

After many lifetimes they progress to the path of the Buddhahood.

Jainism

Jainism is an ancient creed that came to reality due to the contribution of 24 personalities.

Adinath Rishabhdev is considered the first Tirthankara.

23 Thirthankar Parshavnath is considered as the historical figure who was the son of the king of the Kashi.

He renunciate his home in search of enlightenment.

He achieved Kaivalya on Parshavnath Hill. Kaivalya means absolute knowledge.

The 24 Thirthankar was Vardhman Mahavir who gave formal shape to Jainism.

He took birth in 540 BC in Kundagram (Vaishali). His father was Siddharth and his mother was Trishala (She was the sister of Licchavi King Chetak).

His Varna was Kshatriya and his clan was Jnatrika. His principalities or kingdom was Jnayantrika.

His wife was Yashoda. Mahavir had a daughter named Arhojya.

At the age of 30, Mahavir left his home in search of enlightenment.

At the age of 40, he reached Jimbak Gram where on the bank of Rijupalika under a Sal tree he achieved Kaivalya (Absolute Knowledge).

After Attaining Kaivalya, Mahavir came to be known as the Jina (The conqueror) and his followers Jaina.

Five Vows of the Jainism

Do not speak lie (Amrusha).

Do not commit violence (Ahimsa).

Do not steal. (Asteya)

Do not acquire property (Aparigraha).

Observe Brahmacharya(Celibacy).

The last vow or pledge was given by the Vardhaman Mahavir and the remaining four were pre-existing.

Tri-Ratna or Three Jewels of the Jainism

Right Knowledge.

Right Faith.

Right Conduct.

Other Concepts and thoughts of the Jainism

What was the inspiration of Gandhi’s Concept of the Satyagraha (Satya Graha Movement)?

John Russel's book Unto this last.

Who was the originator of Gandhi’s concept of Civil Disobedience?

Henry David Thoreau gave the idea of the Civil Disobedience concept.

The founder of the Maurya Empire, Chandra Gupta Maurya accepted Jainism under the influence of the Jain Monk Bhadrabahu.

There was a severe famine in Magadha. In this situation, accompanied by the Bhadrabahu shifted to a place called Sravanbelgola in Karnataka.

Here he performed extreme penance known as the Sallekhna where he died in typical Jain fashion.

The Jainas are also known for some of their extreme practices. For example, they forbade not the killing of animals, insects, plants but even germs.

Some of the sects of Jainism completely discard the clothes.

Jain Councils

First Jain Council: It was held in 299 BC in Pataliputra. It was patronized by the contemporary king Bindusar. The council was presided by the Jain Monk Sthulabhadra.

In this council, the teachings of all the Thirthankars were compiled in fourteen books known as the Purvaas.

Later Bhadrabahu return from the Sravanbelgola which led to fighting between him and Sthulabhadra that further resulted in the division of Jainism into two formal sects.

These sects are Swetambar (White clads) and Digambars (Sky Clads).

Swetambar (White clads): It was the liberal sect of Jainism who wore white clothes.

They believe that women can achieve Kaivlya in this life only.

Digambar (Sky Clads): They are orthodox and remain naked by discarding the clothes.

They believe that women cannot achieve Kaivalya as they cannot remain naked.

They maintain that women have to observe all practices of Jainism so that in the next birth when they are born as men then they can achieve Kaivalya.

Second Jain Council: It was convened in 512 Ad at Valabhi in Gujarat.

It was patronized by the Chalukya Rulers of Gujarat. It was presided by the Jain Monk Devardhi Ksem Sramana.

The major development of this council was a compilation of all the Jain literature in the Prakrit language.

Jain Literature were: Anga, Upanga, Prakirna, Chedab Sutra, Mulasutra and Bhagavatisutra.

Metaphysical thoughts of the Jainism (6:28:00 PM)

Universe: They believed that universe was created on the laws of nature.

Veda: They rejected the divine authority of Veda.

God: Jainas maintain that if at all there is any entity like God then he must be below the Thirthankars.

Rebirth: They believe in rebirth.

Soul: Jainas believe that there are two types of soul in the universe which are an animate soul and an Inanimate Soul.

Moksha, Nirvana, and Kaivalya end the rebirth.

Nirvana and Kaivlya are similar, that after their attainment the person completes his life cycle but in Moksha, the liberation happens with death.

Buddhism which was born in India became a very large community of followers but in the early medieval time, it started to decline in its own place of birth. On the other hand, Jainism remained always a small isolated community born in India and always flourished and never declined in its place of birth. Explain the reasons. (6:50:00 PM)

Approach (7:03:00 PM)

Once Buddha said to his cousin Anand that if women are allowed in the Sanghas then Buddhism which is going to survive for more than a thousand years will vanish within 1000 years at its own place of birth. Later his words came to be true.

The monks became corrupt. Monks started to lead luxurious life and they shunted the path of asceticism.

Monks also started to practice the elite language Sanskrit that was not easily understood by the common public.

Monks started to interfere in the political affairs of the Monarchies after which kings stopped patronizing Buddhism.

The frequent branching of Buddhism into different sects led to the dilution of Buddhism and it also created confusion among the followers.

There was reform within Hinduism which led to its increased popularity.

In the Gupta period, the practice of devotion was highly emphasized and animal sacrifice was discouraged that led to many people coming back in the fold of Hinduism.

There was further consolidation of Hinduism with the compilation of the majority of Hindu religious literature and the construction of temples.

Many of the Hindu texts portrayed Buddha as the 9 reincarnation of Lord Vishnu which led to the assimilation of Buddhism into Hinduism.

Many of the sects of Buddhism like Mahayana and Vajrayana incorporated the Hindu rituals in their folds which further upheld the position of Hinduism.

Buddhists displayed a very high missionary zeal which angered many people in the society.

On the other hand never displayed a missionary zeal, in fact, they always remained a small community firmly in their belief.

Buddhist were highly critical of the Varna system and caste system.

On the other hand, the Jainas were critical of shameful practices in the Indian society but they never shivered their complete links with caste Hinduism.

Philosophy (7:29:00 PM)

Orthodox Philosophy	Heterodox Philosophy
They believed in the divine authority of Vedas and as the source of knowledge.	They rejected everything related to Vedas.
Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaishesikha, Mimansa, and Vedanta	Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivika, and Carvaka.

Sankhya Philosophy (7:36:00 PM)

Kapila Muni is considered the founder of this philosophy and it is the oldest of all the philosophies.

The early Samkhya Philosophy maintains that Universe owes its origin to nature.

The later Samkhya philosopher maintains that not only nature but also the divine agency is responsible for the origin of the universe.

Many a time this philosophy is referred to as Dvaitvada or dualism because it believes in two realities which are Purush and Prakriti.

Purush is inner consciousness and Prakriti is the element of nature.

They maintain that salvation can be attained through real knowledge.

It mentions three Pramada or sources of knowledge that are Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (Inference), and Shabda (Testimony that is Veda).

The topic for the next class discussion: Philosophy and Religion will be continued.