Humayun's Tomb at Delhi - It has 4 Chatri - 2 Minor and 2 Major
5. Introduced Pinnacle
It is a golden or Copper Rod placed at the top of the dome
Example
Humayun's Tomb
Taj Mahal
It was INdian Influence
6. Continued Minarets
Tall Tapering Towers Either Attached or Detached to the Main Building
They have Spiral Staircases
They could be single, double, multiples
Examples
First Example of Akbar Tomb by Jahangir at Agra → Attached Minaret
First Example of Detached Minaret - Taj Mahal
7. Continued Baghs
First Example is of Nishat Bagh built by Akbar at Srinagar
Second Example is of Shalimar Bagh by Shahjahan for Nurjahan
8. Introduced Elevated Plinth
First Example is of Humayun's Tomb
9. Continued Calligraphy
Art of Writing Quranic Verses on the Walls
First Example is of Taj Mahal
First Calligrapher was Abdus Samad
10. Introduced Petradoura
Inserting Precious and Semi Precious Stones on the Floral Designs of Marble
First Example is of Itimad Id Daulah Tomb at Agra. This building was made by Nurjahan for her Father
Second Example is Taj Mahal
Architecture & Sculpture → By Vision IAS Sir
Ancient
Indus Valley Civilisation (2600-1800 BC)
Seals
Seals were one of the most important artefacts found from Indus Towns
It is one of the greatest sources of information about the Indus Valley Civilization
The seal is a geometrically shaped object (square, circle, hexagon) mainly made up of soft river stone steatite (there were instances of Silver, Gold, Copper, Bronze, Chert and Terracotta seals also)
Seals were pictographic in nature ie pictures and symbols
Example 1: Pashupati Seal
It is considered as the image of Proto-Shiva (Adi-Shiva)
The image is also indicative of meditative processes practised during this period
Image
Image
Nature worship can also be inferred from this image
Example 2 : Unicorn Seal
It seemed to be a mythological animal with one horn and moreover it is the most abundant seal found from IVC Towns
This seal also highlights the importance of animals
Image
Example 3 :Seal with Pipal Leave
It highlights the importance of Ficus as a life-giving plant and is also indicative of nature worship
Image
Image
C3 - Calvin PathwayC4 - Hatch Slack Pathway
Other Purposes of Seal
It marked the authority of IVC
Kind of Initial Kind of Coinage → It was used in Trade facilitation
Many times seals were used for Educational Purposes
In some of the Seals, Mathematical Symbol like Pi was created
Seals were also used as a Shamanic Objects like Amulets (to ward off evils)
Pottery
It was made from Clay Baked on Fire
The general pottery of the IVC was red in colour
It was mainly used for the storage of grains and as utensils
There were many special types of potteries which are as follows:
Miniature Pottery
Narrow and Elongated with beautiful designs - they were meant for decoration
Image
Perforated Pottery - For straining Liquor
Imagew
Sculpture
Stone Sculpture
Soft river stone Steatite was used
For Example: Bearded Priest
The Chemical Composition of steatite is MgS - Its Very Light Material
Terracotta Sculpture
Terracotta is clay baked in the fire
For Example: Mother Goddess
It is the most abundant image found from Indus Town
From all the places, the essence of the image was the depiction of a pregnant lady
In some places, it has been depicted that a plant emerging from her Navel point and slowly encircling the body
It is believed that she was the Goddess of Fertility
Image
Bronze Sculpture
Bronze is a mixture of Copper (Cu) and Tin (Sn)
The Lost-Wax Technique(Cire Perdour) was used for creating bronze sculpture
Remeber the Texhnique
Image
This technique tells about the know-how of Indus Valley People
Moreover, it is still practised in many parts of India like
For Example: The sculpture of Bronze Dancing Girl
Town Planning
Image - Lower Town & Upper Town
Generally, the Indus towns were divided into two parts ie Upper town and lower town
Upper Town
Upper town was created on an upraised platform
It was commonly known as Citadel - In this part of the town administrative buildings were created
It also included granaries for the storage of grains
Another notable structure in the upper town was the common bath meant for ritual bathing
For Example: the Great Bath of Mohenjodaro in which stairs were created in North and South Direction
Moreover, stairs were only made up of burnt bricks
Generally, the upper town was mainly fortified ie had boundary walls
Lower Turn
The lower town was the biggest part meant for the habitation of commoners
It was divided into many sectors
There was a very good network of roads and these roads used to cut each other at right angles
On both the sides of roads, drains were created which were covered with stone or brick slabs
Drains had the provision of the man-hole for easy cleaning of drain and groundwater recharge
Groundwater Recharge → With Gypsum Lining
Inside the sectors, there were instances of single-storey, double-storey and even triple storey houses
All the houses were created with burnt bricks of the same shape and size ie in the ratio of 4:2:1
Houses had the provision of the bedroom, separate washroom, etc
All the houses were connected with the main drain, etc
Ornaments & Cosmetics
Ornaments
They used necklaces, finger rings and waistbands which were made of metals like gold, copper, bronze; and bone and stone
Semi-precious stones were used in making jewellery such as Amethyst, Carnelian, Lapis Lazuli, Quartz, etc
Cosmetics
They were aware of lipsticks, soaps, Kajal and Vermillion (soap)
Lipstick and soap were created by Cinnabar
Mercury was used in Vermillion
They used TinctureIodine to heal the words and disinfectant (to heal the wounds) → Anti Septic and Anti Bacterial
Mauryan Age Art (320 BC -185 BC)
Important Concept of Mauryans
Shramana Tradition of Mauryan Age
It means that the one who strives for enlightenment
At the rear end of the Vedic Period, the Shraman movement started against the discriminatory practices of the Vedic Age
The Adherents of the Shramana did not believe in the methods of Veda
They were against
the dominance of the Brahmins
complex Vedic Rituals
Varna System
Backward Status of women and shudra
animal sacrifice
It is said that the Shraman movement gave rise to religious reform movements in India in the 6th Century BC in the form of Buddhism, Jainism, Ajivika etc
Mauryan - Jainism
Bimbisar - Shramana
The Sharmana tradition was highly patronised by the Maurya Dynasty
Moreover, the architectural developments were also associated with the different branches of the Shramana
Architecture of Mauryas (5)
Mauryan Caves
Images
Mauryan Caves were perhaps the first man-made cave in India
These caves were mainly created by Ashoka and his grandson Dashratha
The cave was highly polished from inside and intricately decorated at the entrance
A semi-circular facade was created inside which reticular panels were created
Moreover, the panel was embossed with an elephant sculpture
The purpose of these caves was to provide shelter to Ajivika Monks
For Example:
Lomash Rishi Caves, Near Gaya
Barabar Caves, Near Gaya
Sudama Caves, Near Gaya
Dhauli Cave & its Rock-Cut Elephant Sculpture, Odisha
Mauryan Pillars
Diagram of Mauryan Pillar
Details
These were monolithic in nature → They Were Part of Same Kingdom
At the same point in time when Mauryan was creating pillars, in the area of Achaemenian Pillars (Achaemenian Kingdom) were also created
But Mauryan pillars were much better in the carver's skill
The height was around 40 feet
Installed in open and no extra support
Achaemenian Pillars
Were created in pieces and later joined together → They Were Not Monolithic
The average height was around 18-20 feet
Used inside buildings and extra concrete reinforcement
One similarity between the two was that they were highly polished
Comparison Between Mauryan and Achaemenian Pillar
Mauryan Pillar
Achaemenian Pillar
Monolithic
Created in Pieces and Later Joined Together
Average Height 40 Ft
Avg Ht 18 20 Ft
Installed in Open
Used Inside Buildings
No Extra Support
Extra Concrete Enforcement
Highly Polished
Highly Polished
Purpose of the Mauryan Pillar
Before Kalinga War
To commemorate victory
To serve imperial sermons and commands
After Kalinga War
To celebrate important life events of Buddha
To propagate Dhamma (moral-ethical code of conduct)
Example
Sarnath Pillar in UP, Near Varanasi - the crowning animal was four lion
Rampurva Pillar in Bihar - the crowning animal is Bull
Lauriya Nandangarh in Bihar - the crowning animal is Lion
Sankissa Pillar in UP - crowning animal is the Elephant
Mauryan Stupa
Stupa is a Sanskrit word that means a Heap of Sand
Current Ritual in the Form of “Mitti Lagana and Tulsi Plantation” after the Burning of Body, next day when we collect the assets of Body
Origin Can be Traced from Vedic Period
The stupa making tradition can be traced back to the Vedic Period when the ancient sages of India were cremated inside a Stupa Formation
Later, when Buddha achieved Maha Parinirvan, his followers cremated him in a bigger stupa formation
In the Maurya period when Asoka accepted the Buddhist faith, he decided to create 9 Stupas on the Relics of Buddha
These Places Included - VRP KKV PRA
Vethapida
Ramagrama
Pippalivana
Kapilavastu
Kushinagar
Vaishali
Pava
Rajagriha / Rajgir
Allakappa
Diagram of Early Stupas
The outermost structure in Stupa is Vedika (Outer Most Boundary Wall). On the Vedika folk narratives, i.e Jataka Katha was created
These Jataka Kathas were based on stories of the previous birth of Buddha
These Jataka Kathas were full of moral, ethical and intellectual lessons
Four Gateways were known as Torana which represented four important life events of Buddha which are
Important Points in Life of Buddha
Birth at Lumbini represented by (East Torana)
Nirvana at Bodh Gaya (South Torana)
Dharma Chakra Parivarthan at Sarnath (West Torana)
Mahaparinirvana at Kushinagar (North Torana)
The stupa is a closed structure that embodies relics of Buddha
The stupa can be accessed for worship on a semi-circular path called Pradakshinapath
Harmika in the stupa structure represents the most sacred space of stupa as it is in line with relics of Buddha
The topmost structure of the stupa includes Yasthi which is considered as the axis of the earth
On Yasthi, three horizontal discs were placed known as Chatri
The three Chatri's are considered as the three jewels of Buddhism ie Tri Ratna of Buddhism i.e Buddha, Dhamma & Sangha
Buddha means the Awakened One.
Dhamma means Doctrine of Buddha.
Sangha means Monastic Order of Buddhism.
The entire Stupa structure is considered as the Microcosm of the Universe and the Body of Buddha
Medhi represents the Leg of Buddha
Anda represents the middle Body of Buddha
Yasthi, Harmika and Chatri represents the Head of Buddha
Mauryan Sculpture
At this point in time, the images of Yaksha and Yakshini was created
They were the Folk God and Goddesses of that time
They were equally worshipped and revered in all the religions of that time (Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism)
For Example: Hinduism
Yaksha Worship has been mentioned in Mahabharat
Yakshini worship was very much reflected in the Saptmatrika Puja of Hinduism
For Example: Jainism
24 Yakshinis were worshipped in Jainism
For Example: Buddhists
Image of Yakshini was considered auspicious
Yaksha as the Guard of Stupa
For Example: South
In Tamil Silapattikaram
For Example:
Didarganj Yakshini of Bihar. It is kept in Patna Mueseum
Salbhanjika Yakshini of Sachi (i.e Yakshini holding the Birch of Sal Tree)
Yaksha of Parkham → Sanchi and Gwalior
Mauryan Pottery
The characteristic pottery of the Mauryan Period was Northern Black Polished Ware popularly known as NBPW
It was the climax of pottery making as such that they used very fine particles of clay for pottery
This is because highly polished and evenly smooth pottery was created
Post Mauryan Art (200 BC - 200 AD)
Post Mauryan Caves
Division on the Basis of Structure
Apsidal Vault Cave with Pillar
Diagram
For Example: Ajanta Cave, Bhaja Cave and Karla Cave from Maharashtra
Apsidal Vault Cave without Pillar
Diagram
For Example: Thana Nadsur Cave and Pithalkhora Cave from Maharashtra
Quadrangular Hall Flat Roof cave
Diagram
For Example: Mahakali Kondivite Cave from Maharashtra
Division on the Basis of Purpose
Chaitya
It was a prayer hall for the monks
Very often a votive stupa was created at the rear end of the cave
Vihar
It was meant for shelter for the monks
Their stay was limited to the duration for the monsoon season only
During their stay, they confessed their sins to each other and took the resolution to further purify their conscience
In this period many changes were introduced, the wooden Vedika was replaced with stone Vedika
Inside the premise of the stupa, an image of Manushi Buddha was created
Manushi Buddha represents a person who was one among the humans' and went on to become the awakened one
Two Pradakshinapath were created at this point in time
The Lower Pradakshinapath represented Hinayana Buddhism
The Upper Pradakshinapath represented Mahayana Buddhism
The increasing number of the Chattri’s in odd numbers represented the importance of odd numbers in Buddha's lifetime
Gupta Art (320 AD - 550 AD)
Gupta Age Art Introduction
Gupta age is considered as the Golden Age of Art and Architecture
The cave making reached its climax at this point in time
Further one of the most important achievements was the beginning of temple architecture
Not only temples were created but also Manuscript regarding how to construct a temple, Vastu Shastra was also written
Cave in Gupta Period
Ajanta Caves - Gupta Painting
Diagram
It is in Aurangabad, Maharashtra with 29 caves
It is divided into 25 Viharas and 4 Chaityas
It is a purely Buddhist Cave
Ajanta caves were created on the steep side of the hill and so there was no scope for creating courtyards
There are instances of single storey and double storey caves in Ajanta
The Sculptures and Fresco Mural Paintings were created based on Buddhism
The Technique of Fresco Mural
A mixture of cow dung, rice husk and clay was applied on the walls of the cave
In the second step, lime plaster was coated and finally, an image was created to be filled with colours
The initial mixture was meant for retaining moisture and providing freshness to the painting
For Example: - Import
Flying Apsara
Dying Princess
Padmapani (Bodhi Satva Holding a Lotus)
Vajrapani (Bodhi Satva holding Thunderbolt)
Maitreya (Future Buddha)
Manju Shri (Buddha of Wisdom)
Avaloki Teshwara (the Lord who looks Down with Compassion)
Padmapani is Avalokiteshwara. They are Same
Ellora Caves (Aurangabad) - Rashtrkuta Painting
Ravan Shaking Mount Kailash
There were 34 caves
17 belonged to Hinduism
12 to Buddhism
05 to Jainism
It was created on the sloping side of the hill as such courtyards can be seen in Ellora
There are instances of triple storied caves in Ellora
The most special feature of Ellora is premise number 16 of Hinduism popularly known as Kailash Nath Temple
It is considered one of the architectural wonders of India
The temple was created from a single stone ie Monolithic and a top-down approach of constriction was followed in this temple
Kailash Nath Temple was created by the Rashtrakut ruler, Krishna I
Inside Ellora, one can find fresco-mural paintings based on Vaishnavite Hinduism
The most popular painting is Lord Vishnu riding on Garuda
The Jain caves of Ellora were popularly known as Indra Sabha
Elephanta Caves
It is located off-coat Mumbai.
It is believed that Buddhist specimens were also there at Elephanta, In contemporary times only Hindu specimen are there
One of the very popular sculptures was Trimurti which is
Bhairav, Mahesh, Uma
Bagh Caves - Gupta Painting
It is close to Indore on the banks of Bagh River in MP
It has 9 sandstone caves and all of them belong to Buddhism
Cave number 4 is known as Rang Mahal in which beautiful frescoes based on Buddhism were created
Nasik Caves
These were also known as Nasik Vihar and are 24 in number
All the caves belong to the Hinayana phase of Buddhism
Nasik is also famous for Hindu religious pilgrimage and holds a very important place in the Saivite Tradition of Hinduism
12 Shiv Jyotirling of India
Amarnath and Kailash Man Sarovar are NOT Shiv Jyotirling
Somnath and Nageshwar in Gujrat
Trimbakeshwar (Nasik), Girishneswar(Opposite to Ellora Caves) and Bhimshankar in Maharashtra
Omkareshwar and Mahakaleshwar in MP
Rameshwaram in Tamil Nadu
Mallikarjun or Srisailam in Andhra Pradesh
Kashi Vishwanath in UP
Kedarnath in Uttarakhand
Baidyanath in Jharkhand
Question by UPSC
Which of the Following is a SUN Temple ?
Aravalli
Amarkantak
Omkareshwar
Option
1 & 3
2 & 3
1 Only
1,2,3
Udaygiri and Khandgiri Cave (Odisha)
These caves were created during the regime of Jain king Kharavela
The caves belonged to Jain tradition and it also included the sculptures of Odissi dance forms
Junagarh Caves / Uparkot Cave
It is found in Girnar Hills, Gujrat and the cave chambers were created upstairs
Both Hindu and Buddhist traditions can be found in these caves
Temple Architecture in North India
Evolution of Temple
Stage I
Diagram
Square temple on the grounded platform was created
Flat roof with shallow pillars
For Example: Temple number 17 of Sachi
Stage II
Diagram
Flat roof, square temple approach continued
But now temple was created on an upraised platform with in depth pillar
For Example: Parvati Temple of Nachnakuthara in MP
Stage III
Diagram
This Stage gave India Umbrella Style Temple
In this stage squared temple was created on an upraised platform
But the unique feature of this stage was the introduction of the curvilinear tower known as Shikhara
It is believed that this stage of the temple gave rise to the Naagar Style of temples
For Example: Deogarh Temple of Jhansi
Nagar Style of Temple
Diagram - Parts of Temple
Diagram - Crucified Ground Plan
Introduction ot Nagara Style
Generally, a boundary wall is not created in the Nagar temple so as water tank
It is created on an upraised platform known as Jagati
The most important place in the temple is the Garbhagriha inside which the images of deities are placed
The mandap is the prayer hall of the temple
The characteristic feature of the Nagar temple is the presence of a Curvilinear tower known as Shikhara
Shikhara pauses with Amlak which is a horizontal disc
Some Features of Nagara Style Temple
Generally in Nagar temple, the Crucified Ground plan is followed
Another very important feature of Nagar is some of the temples followed the Panchayatan Style of Temple Making whereby the images of 5 deities were placed in 1+4 arrangement
It means the image of one main God kept along with 4 subsidiary Gods
Sub-Styles of the Nagara Temple
Odisha Temple
Diagram
Introduction
One can find the presence of a boundary wall in the Odisha temple
The external walls of the temples were lavishly decorated with intricate carvings
The interior walls of temples were kept plain
The characteristic feature of the Odisha temple is Deul Shikhara which is almost vertical till the top when it suddenly starts curving inside
The prayer hall in Odisha style is called Jagmohan
The Odisha temple also have Bhoga Mandira for Prasad and Nata Mandira for musical performances
Sculptures of God are Created from Wood
In Jagannath Puri - from Neem Wood Image
Neem Wood Image of Jagannath - was incomplete
Lord Vishwakarma was creating the Image of Lord Jagannath
Every 12th Year - Images are Changed
For Example:
Jagannath Temple (Puri)
Accompanied by Bal Bhadra and Subhadra
Sun Temple (Konark)
Lingraj Temple (Bhubaneswar)
Khajuraho / Chandella’s Style of Temple
It was developed by the Chandella Rulers of Bundelkhand
It is considered as the climax of the Naagar Style of temple
It is created on a very high platform
It is noted for the presence of multiple Shikhara’s which gives an impression of the Mountain Range Impression
One can see falling half Shikhara’s on main Shikhar which is known as Urushringa
Both the exterior and interior walls were lavishly decorated with intricate carvings
The imagery or sculptures on the temple wall are said to be inspired by Kamasutra written by Vatsyayana (Sexual Images)
Chandella temples are noted for the presence of many chambers
All these chambers are connected with each other in the East to West direction
Not only Hindu but also Jain temples were also created in this style
For Example:
Kandariya Mahadev Temple
Laxman Temple of Khajuraho
Also, Circular temples were also created in this style
It is believed that the Circular temples of Chandella's inspired the design of the old Parliament Building
For Example:
Chaunsath Yogin Temple of Khajuraho, Jabalpur, Morena
For Example: Jain Temples
Parshvnath Temple
Ghantai Temple Khajuraho
Why was Sex Scene Images Created on the Walls of Khajuraho Temple ?
Dharm - Responsibility
Arth - Owning Sustenance
Kama - Important Part of life
Moksha - Salvation
Solanki Temple
Diagram
This style was developed by the Solanki rulers of Gujrat
Features
The exterior wall of the temple was optimally decorated
The interior walls were decorated with intricate lavish designs
The majority of the temples in this style were created facing east direction so that Sun rays must directly enter into the shrine
Not only Hindu but also Jain temples were created in this style
Another special feature is the presence of stepped water tanks in the premises of temples
Moreover, the miniature version of the temple was created on the stairs of stepped tanks
In this style stepped wells were also created
For Example Rani ki Vav of Patan
For Example:
Modera Sun Temple, Gujrat
Dilwara Jain Temple of Mount Abu
South Indian Art (600 AD)
Evolution of Temple in South
The temple art in South India began under the Pallava Rulers and reached its climax during the rule of the Mainline Chola Dynasty
The South Indian temple evolved in 4 stages which are as follows
Mahendra Varman Stage
Diagram
In this stage, a rock-cut cave shrine was created, inside which the images of deity was placed for worship
This structure came to be known as Mandap
Narasimhan Varman Stage
Diagram
In this stage, the rocks were not only cut from inside but also outside to give them a beautiful shape
These structures were popularly known as Rath
Example: Pandava Rath of Mahabalipuram in which the
Dharmaraj Rath (dedicated to Yudhisthir) is the biggest
Draupadi Rath was the smallest
Rajasimha Varman Stage
In this stage, real structural temples were created
It is believed that this stage gave rise to the Dravida Style of temples
The speciality of this stage was the creation of an inclining pyramidal tower known as Vimana
For Example: Kailash Nath Temple of Kanchi and Shore of Mahabalipuram
Nandivarman Stage
In this stage, the Dravida style was popularised in South India
Vaikunth Perumal Temple of Kanchipuram
Dravida Style of Temple Architecture
Diagram
Features
The enclosure wall and stepped water tank is a necessary features of the Dravida Temple
Dravidian style is characterised by the presence of an inclining Pyramidal tower known as Viman
The gateways of the temple are known as Gopuram
One can see, very high Viman on the Gopuram
Ardha Mandap: It is an entrance porch in which either the sculpture of Nandi or the Dhwaj or the temple is installed
The Garbhagriha of the temple is connected through a narrow passage known as Antaral
At the entrance of Garbhagriha, sculptures of Dwarpal is created who are considered the guards of the temple
Note: In Nagara Style, generally at the entrance of Garbhagriha, the image of river Goddess Ganga or Yamuna is created or the image of embracing couple Mithun is created
Dravida temples also follow the Crucified Ground Plan
Some of the Dravidian temples do follow the Panchayatan Style
For Example The Brihadeshwara Temple of Tanjore
Sub-Style of Dravida Temples
Vijaynagar Style of Temples
Diagram
This style of temple developed during the rule of Vijaynagar, particularly during the tenure of Krishna Dev Raya
Features
They created very high enclosure walls in the temple
Images of super-natural horses were created on the enclosure walls
The speciality of the Vijaynagar temple is the presence of two Garbhagriha
The second Garbhagriha is known as Amman Shrine, which is dedicated to the chief wife of the main God
In this style, the marriage halls known as Kalyan Mandapam were created inside the premise of the temple
For Example:
Virupakshan Temple of Hampi
Veer Bhadra Temple of Lepakshi
Nayak Temples
Diagram
It was developed by Nayak Rulers of Madurai
It is considered the climax of the Dravida style of temple
This style is known for the presence of a large number of Gateways
Another speciality is the presence of huge corridors known as Parakram
In Nayaka style, the water tank or Pushkaram is created inside the premise of the temple
Amman Shrine is continued in Nayak Style
Another special feature is the presence of a (thousand) pillared hall and musical column
For Example:
Meenakshi Temple or Sundareshwar Temple of Madurai
Sriranganath Swami Temple of Srirangam
Other Temple Styles
Vesara Temple
It is derived from the Sanskrit word Vishra which means to take a long path
This style is considered to be a combination or mixture of Nagar and Dravida temple
The tower of the temple is inspired by Dravida Viman and like the Nagara style covered ambulatory passageway was created
They also created semi-circular halls like Buddhist Chaitya's
For Example:
The Durga Temple of Aihole in Karnataka
Lakhan Temple of Aihole in Karnataka
Hoysala Temple
This style was created by Hoysala Rulers of Karnataka
The speciality of this style is the presence of a stellate ground plan or star-shaped ground plan
Generally, the Grey sandstone was highly used in Hoysala temples
This style is known for intricate carvings on the wall of temples
For Example: The exterior wall of temples are carved with the story of Ramayan and Mahabharata
Rajputs created hanging balconies of different sizes and shapes.
They created carved cornices in half-bow shape.
Diagram
In many of the Rajput forts, one can find Rang-Mahal which is a special hall created with coloured glasses.
They also created Labyrinth (Bhool-Bhulaiya).
Rajput Ruler Jai Singh of Amer is known for creating many astronomical observatories known as Jantar-Mantar at
Jaipur
Mathura
Banaras
Ujjain
Delhi
Other architectural fortunes
Amer Palace
City Palace of Jaipur
Rambagh Palace
Umed Bhavan (Jodhpur)
Udaivilas Palace (Udaipur)
Modern Period ( 1707-1947)
British Architecture
Two styles = Indo-Gothic style and Neo-Roman Style
Portuguese
POP Usage
Iberain Style
Dome
Dome Came to India from City of Al Tamir from Middle East
Indo-Gothic Style
It led to the introduction of advanced British Engineering tools in India
It led to the introduction of steel as an important construction material. Now thinner walls were created with the strength intact
They created pointed arches in their buildings Ex: Churches
Diagram
They created large windows, the Gothic building was decorated with Victorian Deco Art
They continued the Mughal Style Double Dome Structure
Example of Indo Gothic Cities: Bombay, Calcutta, Madras are cities where Indo-Gothic Style is seen.
Kolkata: St. Paul cathedral, Victoria Memorial, Writer's Building
Mumbai: Fort, Churchgate, Gateway of India
Madras: Ripon Building
Neo-Roman Style
After the transfer of the capital of British India from Kolkata to Delhi the task of developing new architecture in Delhi was interesting with two British architects Edwin Lutyens and Herbert Baker
But Later the structures in Delhi were single-handedly planned by Lutyens
This style was a mixture of ancient Indian Buddhist, Jain, and Mughal Architecture which led to the creation of an Anonymous Style
Agitation by Jamia Millia on British Influence in 1920’s
The first outlook of the building is grand and elegant, these buildings were compromised in terms of utility and convenience
Most of the buildings were monotonous in outlook.
In the layout of New Delhi, good space was kept for the development of the green belt including massive parks
Most of the buildings in this style had a circular layout.
Examples:
Sansad Bhavan
Central Secretariat
North Block
South Block
Rashtrapati Bhavan
Contemporary to British Art
Awadh Architecture
Created by
In Awadh art in construction, only stones and bricks were used and marble was not used in any of their building
They created beautiful floral arches in their buildings
The domes in this style were created without any apparent support
They were the finest Labyrinth makers in India
They used Rice Husks in the INterior of the Wall for regulating temperature
Examples :
Lucknow
Bada Imambara
Chota Imambara
Rumi Darwaza
Chattar Manzil
Paintings - by Vision IAS
Mural Paintings
Ajanta Murals
were purely based on Buddhist themes.
Ellora Murals
Fresco murals were created in Ellora during the Rashtrakuta period
It was based on a Vaishnavite theme
In one of the paintings, lord Vishnu has directed riding on Garuda.
Bagh Mural
Theme purely based on Buddhism
Sittanavasal Mural
Also called Sittanavasal cave of Tamil Nadu
The Theme of the painting was based on Jainism
Badami Mural
Also known as Vatapi in Karnataka
It was patronized by Chalukyas, particularly Manglesh Chalukya
The theme was based on Vaishnavite tradition.
Chola Mural
Tanjore in Tamil nadu
It was patronized by the imperial Chola dynasty
It was created on the walls of temples, though generally it was based on Shaivite tradition, they also created the images of Chola rulers in mural tradition.
Vijaynagar Mural
It is also referred to as the Lepakshi mural
It was patronized by Vijaynagar rulers, particularly Krishna dev Raya
Paintings were created on the walls of the temple but the theme was secular in nature
It was also noted for the complete absence of primary colors.
Nayaka Mural
In madurai, Tamil Nadu
It was patronized by the Nayak rulers of Madurai
It was also created on the walls of the temple and the theme was generally based on Hindu mythology
The theme of Lord Krishna was very popular
In some places, one can find paintings based on the life of Vardhman Mahavir also
Kerala Mural
It was patronized by the feudal lords and the Travancore ruler of Kerala
It was practiced in the temple of North Kerala
The theme was based on Hindu mythology, particularly Ramayana and Mahabharata
Miniature
Introduction
Miniature is a very small-scale painting but highly detailed in nature.
It is created on perishable materials like paper, palm leaves, and cloth.
Initial rules for creating miniature
The size of the painting must not be larger than 25 square inches.
The object to be painted on the canvas must not be larger than 1/6th of the original size.
In medieval times these all rules were diluted
Early Miniature of India
Pala miniature
it was patronized by the pala dynasty
It was purely based on a Buddhist theme
It was created on palm leaves
It is a type of manuscript painting
Western miniature
It was mainly practiced in Gujarat and south Rajasthan
It was patronized by the Jain traders of this area, as such, it was based on themes of Jainism
Initially, it was created on palm leaves they started to paint on paper also.
Mughal Miniature
Humayun's Period
He brought two Persian painters with him Mir Sayyed Ali and Abdur Samad
With the arrival of these two painters, the Persian Safavid style of painting started in India
Akbar's period
Akbar opened the gateways of Mughal painting to fellow Indian painters
He opened many Karkhanas of paintings which generated employment
Akhbar also started a system of rewards to promote the painting
Realism was the keynote of Akbar's period painting
He also created a studio of painting known as Tasveer khana
At this point in time, the Hamzanama series painting was created by Mir Sayyed Ali and Abdul Samad which was based on the life of Amir Hamza (uncle of the prophet)
Inspired by this painting Akhbar was ordered to paint some of the Indian literature as such Hamzanama is Mahabharat and, Tutinama - tails of the parrot was created.
Jahangir's Period
It was the Climax of Mughal paintings
Jahangir himself was a great painter and he was a naturalist who painted on various flora and fauna
The characteristic feature of this period was the beginning of portrayed painting in which a single object was highlighted and the rest of the things in the background was kept blurred
Another feature of this period was the use of decorated margins in the paintings.
Shah Jahan's Period
Shahjahan period is noted for dilution in the realism of the Mughal painting.
There was heavy usage of gold and silver colors in paintings.
European influence also started at this time which is reflected from pencil and charcoal sketching.
Moreover, it is also a reflection of the creation of the shadow effect in the paintings.
After the arrival of Aurangzeb, all forms of art started to decline and the painters from the Mughal area started to practice their paintings in regional kingdoms.
Regional Paintings
Rajasthani Paintings
In the early 17th century, only mural paintings were practiced in the Rajasthan area but by the end of the 17th century, it formally established itself in miniature tradition
In the Rajasthani school of paintings, the theme of Geet Govind written by Jayadeva, and Chaurapanchasika written by Bilhana was very popular
One of the most common running themes in Rajasthani painting was Lord Krishna's theme
Almost everywhere in Rajasthan, Lord Krishna was painted in blue color to depict as Shyam varna(dusky color)
Ragamala Painting
It was mainly practiced in Mewar, Marwar Area
It is a unique painting in which musical ragas were depicted but it is inferior in quality
Kota-Bundi Painting
It is known as Hadoti painting
It is known for theme related to Lord Krishna with a detailed description of local vegetation
Kishangarh Painting
It is often referred to as a painting with exaggerated physical features e.g. Sharp nose, pointed chin, Almond-shaped eyes, eyes exuding margin of face, and slender-body curve
One of the most famous styles of this painting is Bani Thani created by Nihal Chand
This painting is considered as a fashion lady of India
South Indian Painting
Kalamkari Painting
It is created on cotton cloth and is popular in the state of Andhra Pradesh
On the basis of the, it is divided as:
Srikalahasti Kalamkari based on Hindu religious theme
Masulipatnam Kalamkari, based on a secular theme
Tanjore Painting
A cotton cloth is pasted on a wooden panel with the help of Jaggery and tamarind paste on which images were created and filled with colors
It is based on the theme of Hindu Mythology with Lord Krishna as a famous one
Its specialty is the usage of real gold and ornaments in the paintings which makes it one of the costliest in India
Mysore Paintings
It was patronized by the Wodeyar dynasty of Mysore
It is practiced on both cotton canvas and glass panel canvas
In this painting, glittery, contrasting, and muted colors are used
Another specialty is the usage of the Gesso-paste, which is a mixture of lead gumbos and glue
This mixture increases the longevity of the painting
The theme of Mysore painting is based on Hindu mythology but the most popular is Mysore Dussehra
Miscellaneous Painting
Kangra paintings
It is a GI-tagged painting practiced on cotton cloth
It is a unique fusion of painting and embroidery
The theme of Kangra painting is generally based on Hindu God and Goddess
Thangka Painting
It is practiced in the Leh & Ladakh area
Purely Buddhist painting created on silk cloth
Sino-Tibetan influence can be seen in these paintings with the image of a dragon
Madhubani Painting
It was mainly practiced by the women of the Mithilanchal area of Bihar
Initially, it was created on the walls of the houses and colors were mixed in the rice floor to be applied on the wall
On the basis of theme, there are 2 types of Madhubani
Aripan- Hindu religious theme and
Kohbar - Love erotic theme
Manjusha Painting of Bihar
It is noted for the natural environment theme with a snake as an important motive/ design
Patna kalam Painting of Bihar
It was practiced by mainly the Men working in the royal courts
In terms of technique, it was closer to Mughal painting but the theme was based on depicting the plight of a common man
Kalighat painting - West Bengal
Theme: Goddess Kali with subaltern perspective
Patachitra Of Orissa
It is a type of scroll painting created on cotton cloth
Warli Painting
It was specifically practiced by the Warli tribe of Maharashtra
Initially, it was a mural painting created on the walls of the house but later, started painting on paper & Canvas
Theme: Celebrating the folk culture of the Warli tribe
Pabuji Ki Phad of Rajasthan
The theme is based on Rajasthani warrior Babuji.
Paintings - By Krithika Mam
Painting means sketching and drawing by Adding Colors
4th Art amongst the 64 Arts
It was called as Alekhyam in Past - Meaning Drawing and Coloring
Sacred Art
Creative and Natural Art
First Text of Painting
Chitrasutra written by Vishnudharmottara
Has rules and regulations for painting
in Sanskrit
During Gupta Period
is considered Sacred
It is all most perished
Second Text of Painting
Kamasutra written by Vatsyayana
Gives Rules and Regulation of Painting
It calls for 6 Rules called Shadanga
Rupabheda - Knowledge of Appearance
Pramanam - Knowledge of Measurement
Sadrishyam - Simplitude
Lavanya Yojanam - Infusion of Grace
Bhava - Actions or Emotions
Varnika - Infusion of Colors, According to Kamasutra is Red is the most attractive color
He speaks about colors
Primary Colors - Natural Color - 6
Red - from Palash
Green - from Leaves
Yellow - from Pollen grains
Blue - from Indigo
Black - from Soot
White - from Limestone
Secondary Colors - Shades
Yellow + Red → Orange
Black + White → Grey
Three Types of Painting
💡
All Frescos are Murals but all Murals are NOT Fresco
Murals : On Walls, Floors and Ceilings && on a DRY Surface
Ex: Ajanta Caves ; First Painting came with Gupta
Fresco : On Walls, Floors and Ceilings && on a WET Surface
Ex : Ellora Caves
Miniature : It was executed on Cloth, Canvas, Cardboard, Paper, Jute etc
Also called Contemporary Painting ; Mughals Painted in Canvas
Classical Dance - by Vision IAS
Evolution of Dance in India
Bharatmuni Natyashastra is considered the first treatise on dance, drama, and music
As per the story in Natyashastra, Lord Brahma requested Bharat Muni to create a pastime with philosophies by taking the elements from existing Vedas
As such Bharat Muni took the following elements:
Pathya (words) taken from Rigveda
Abhinaya (expression)- Yajurveda
Geet (music)- Samaveda
Rasa (emotions)- Atharvaveda
Natyashastra further mentions the two aspects of dance and three elements of the dance.
2 Aspects:- Lashya and Tandava
Lashya:
is a feminine aspect of dance. It is characterized by soft and beautiful movements, strong expression, and grace
The First Mythological Example: of Lashya is Goddess Parvati's dance at the occasion of her marriage with Lord Shiva
Tandava:
It is the masculine aspect of the dance, characterized by fast movement, aggression, strength, and determination
The First Mythological Example: is Lord Shiva's Tandava
Bhairava tandava associated with the destruction of the Universe
Ananda Tandava associated with the reconstruction of the Universe
Another Mythological Example: is Lord Krishna's Tandava on the Head of Kaliya Naag
Three Elements of Dance:
Nritta- pure dance movement without any expression
Natya- dramatic expression
Nritya- Abhinaya with dance movement
Later Nandikeshwara wrote Abhinaya Darpan which elaborated on the use of Rasa or Emotions in the dance, which are as follows:
Shringar - Love
Vir- courage
Hasya- Laughter
Karunya- tragedy
Adbhut- amazement
Bhayanak- fear
Raudra- anger
Bibhatsa- disgust
Shant- Peace
1: Bharatanatyam → Tamil Nadu → Oldest
It is often referred to as
Bhava(Bha)
Raga(Ra)
Tala(Ta)
Natyam
Background and History
It traces its name to Bharat Muni and it is the oldest classical form of India
This dance form emerged from the DevadasiSystem of Tamil Nadu whereby young girls were donated to temples and were symbolically married to the main God of the Temple
After that, they were supposed to serve God with their dance for their entire life
But later when the Devadasi system was banned, it led to the disappearance of Bharatanatyam also
In this situation, a freedom fighter E. Krishna Iyer revived the dance form.
In modern times, from her performance, Rukmini Devi Arundale gave global recognition to Bharatanatyam
Steps
Alarippu:in this step, the dancer invokes God to seek his blessings
Jatiswaram: It is a pure dance movement
Shabdam: it is the beginning of the expression in the dance
Varnam: further elaboration of Abhinaya
Padam: mastery in Abhinaya
Jawali: short dance performance on love lyrics
Tillana: it is an exuberant and joyous movement
Important Terms & Gestures
Fire Dance: it is often referred to as fire dance as the movement resembles the dancing flames. During the performance, the bodyweight of the dancer is equally distributed along the centre of the mass
Katakamukha Hasta: is the most important Mudra in Bharatanatyam in which the first three fingers are joined to symbolize the universal sound "OM"
Ek Charya Lashyam: Is a popular solo performance in Bharatanatyam whereby a single dancer takes up the role of many
Nattuvanar: during the performance, a person continuously recites Mantra and he is known as Nattuvanar
Music Used
Carnatic classical music is used during the performance.
Home Work: Look About Bharatanatyam & Pandit Jasraj
2: Kuchipudi → Odisha
Introduction
It emerged from the Andhra Village of Kuchelapuram (Kushelwa Puri). It was performed by the male dancers of this village, who were performing on the themes of the Hindu religion
These dancers came to be known as the Kuchelvas
In the new Vaishnavite period, the dance form was monopolized by the young male Brahmins of the Andhra. They started to perform on the theme of the Bhagwat Puran
They came to be known as the Bhagwat Halus
The dance form was patronized by the Vijayanagar and Golconda Rulers
In modern times Kuchipudi was revived by Ragini Devi and Bala Saraswati
Features
This dance form represents an earthly element in the body. The very first step in Kuchipudi is known as the Daru in which dancers enter the stage and introduce their characters one by one.
After the introduction, they invoke God to seek his/her blessing
Bhamakalapam is the most popular theme in the Kuchipudi. It is the story of Lord Krishna and his wife Satyabhama
Many a time the dances take up the role of the singer during the performance
Music Used
Generally, the Kuchipudi performance uses Carnatic Music
Popular Solo Elements in Kuchipudi
Manduka Shabdam: In this performance, the dancer tells the story of a frog
Tarangam: In this, the dancer keeps her toe on the edges of the brass plate while balancing a water pitcher on the head and two lit diyas in hand while performing
Tala Chitra Natyam: In this, the dancer tries to create a colorful rangoli on stage with her feet while performing
Famous Proponents:
Raja, and Radha Reddy
Yamini Krishnamurthy
Kiran Sehgal
3: Kathakali → Kerala
Introduction
It derives its name Sanskrit word Katha means story and Kali means Drama Dance. Initially, it was performed in the traditional theaters of Kerala
Initially, it was part of traditional theatres of Kerala such as Ramanattam, Krishnattam, Koodiyattam, Chakyar Koothu, etc. Later it branch itself off from the theatrical tradition and became a separate dance performance
It was patronized by rulers of Travancore and feudal lords of Kerala
In modern times Kathakali was revived by the Malayalam Poet V N Menon under the patronage of Mukund Raja
Features
It is considered the Ballet of the East
Kathakali performance always happens in the open sky. Thus it highlights the importance of the element of the sky
The eye and eyebrow movement are of utmost importance
Kathakali depicts the eternal fight between good and evil
Facial makeup plays utmost importance and different colors do depict different types of characters
Facial Make Up Includes Many Colors, to Highlight Different Types of Characters
Green Color →Satwik characters are depicted in green color. It represents nobility, divinity, virtue
Red Color → Red depicts Rajsik that is characterized by Royalty.
Black Color → Black depicts Tamasik that characterizes evil and wickedness
Music Used
During the performance Sopan Music of Kerala
It is used in which musical instruments like chhinda, maddala, chingila, Idakka, Sankhy are used
Famous Proponents
are Guru Kunchu Kurup, Gopinath, Rita Ganguly, Madhuri Amma, etc.
4: Mohiniyattam → Kerala
Introduction
It is known as the dance of the enchanters.
This dance form traces its story from the mythological story of Samudra Manthan (Churning of Sea - Palazhi), whereby lord Vishnu disguised in the form of Mohini to take back Amrut pot from the Asuras
The dance form was patronized by the rulers of Travancore. In modern times, it was revived by the Malayalam poet V N Menon under the patronage of Mukund Raja
Features
It started as a female preserve and it is still a feminine form of the dance
The Lashya aspect of the dance is dominating
There are forty basic steps in Mohiniattam which are known as the Attavavakul
The costume in Mohiniattam is of utmost importance which is of white Kasavu Silk Saree with golden brocade (GI Tag Saree)
Another very important part of the costume is Jasmine Gajra in the hair Lock
This dance form highlights the importance of the elements of the air
Music Used
Carnatic classical music is used during the performance
Famous Exponents
Sunanda Nair, Madhuri Amma, Jayaprabha Menon, etc.
5: Odissi → Odisha
Introduction
It is considered the second-oldest classical form of India. It is mentioned as Odra Nritya in Bharat Muni’s Natya Shastra
Maharis (Professional Dancers of Temple) were the initial repository of this dance form. Who were patronized by the Jain King Kharavela. Later Maharis system became defunct and its place court form of the Odissi emerged known as the Nartala.
In modern times Gotipua is the most popular form of the Odissi
In modern times it was revived by Charles Fabri and Indrani Rehman
Features
The Gotipua Odissi is performed by young boys who are aged around 14 or less
As such it is an acrobatic type of performance that involves leaping, jumping, and frogging
These young boys are dressed like females and they perform on the themes of the Lord Vishnu
It is considered as the fluidic form of dance and it highlights the importance of elements of water & being flexible in order to perform this dance
Many a time Odissi is referred to as the mobile sculpture dance
Many of the steps in Odissi are inspired from the Bharat Natyam
Important Postures
Tribhang is one of the most important postures of this form which is basically the tri-bent position of the body where the body is deflected at three places that is neck, torso, and Knee
It is considered as the feminine posture of the dance
Chowk is another important posture whereby dancers try to create the shape of a square with help of her leg. It is considered the masculine posture of dance
Example
Steps in Odissi
Mangalacharanam is the invocation of God to seek his blessing
Other steps are Battu Nritya, Pallavi, Tharijham
Moksha is the last step. It is an exuberant and joyous moment symbolizing temporary salvation
Music Used
Hindustani Classical music is used during the performance.
Famous Exponents
Guru Kelucharan Mohapatra, Pankaj Charan Das, Sanjukta Panigrahi, Sonal Mansingh, Sharon Lowen (USA), and Mytra Bravie (Argentina).
6: Manipuri → Manipur
Introduction
It traces its origin to the mythological story whereby it is said that Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvathi descended to the hills of the Manipur and danced with local Gandharvas
The modern-day Manipuri is the amalgamation of
Rasleela
Sankirtana (themes of Lord Krishna)
Thangka martial dance of the Manipur
It marked the beginning of the Manipuri dance
In modern times the dance form was brought from oblivion by Rabindranath Tagore who made it part of the syllabus in Visva Bharati University in Shantiniketan
Features
It is a combination of the folk tradition of Manipur: "Lai Haraoba" festival dance and "Thang Ta" martial Dance
MukaAbhinay Facial Expression is completely absent in Manipuri
Nagabandha is the most important Mudra in Manipuri whereby the dancer tries to create a shape of 8 with help of her body curve
Dancers also take up the role of the singer while performing (Like Kuchipudi)
Manipuri regional music is performed which involves musical instruments like Pena, Kartal (Famous Exponents), Pung (a type of drum), Cymbals.
Famous Dancers
Guru Bipin Singha, Bimbavati Devi, and Jhaveri Sisters (Nayana, Suvarna, Ranjana, and Darshana)
7: Sattriya → Assam
Introduction
It derives its name from Vaishnavite Monastery Sattar. One of the most famous Bhakti Saint from Assam Shankardev who was head of Sattar included two folk dances of Assam into rituals of the Sattar. “Devdasi” and “Vyah Goa Ojah Palli”
The combination of these two dances came to be known as the Sattariya.
Features
It is performed by both males and females
Male devotee dancers are generally known as the Bhokots
The theme of Sattariya was based on the writings of Shankardeva known as Borgeets
They create music during the performance with Khol (a type of Dholak)
The costumes of the dancers are made from the Pat silk of Assam
Both Lashya and Tandav aspects are equally emphasized in this dance form
In the contemporary times there are two branches of Sattariya that are Gayan Bhayanar and Kharmnaar Nath Sattariya
8: Kathak → UP
Introduction
It is a dance form that emerged from the UP
It started with the Kathakar tradition (storytelling tradition) of the Braj area in UP
Initially, it was a temple form of dance performed on a Hindu religious theme. But later during the Mughal time, the temple form of dance got transitioned into the court form of the dance
Moreover, Persian influence also started to reflect in this dance form. Nawab Wajid Ali Shah of Lucknow was the famous exponent of this dance form
Features of Kathak
Unlike other classical forms in Kathak, there is no importance of the bent position and the dancer always maintains full foot contact with the dance floor
She also thumps on the floor to create different types of sound
The costume of the female dancer is inspired by Persian tradition which is the Anarkali suit
Diagram of Cloth
During the performance, the dancers jump in the air and take a turn which leads to the creation of beautiful Pirouettes which provides further elegance to the dance form
Elements of Kathak
Elements of Recitals in Kathak include Toda, Tukda, Tarana, Kramalaya, Padhant, Gat Bhav, Jugalbandi
Jugal Bandi: It is the competitive play between the Tabla musician and the dancer while maintaining synchronization\
Gharanas System in Kathak
Kathak is the only classical dance form where the Gharana System exists
The different Gharana are created on the basis of Styles
Lucknow → it highly emphasizes the expression
Jaipur Gharana: It emphasis on rhythm
Banaras Gharana: It emphasis on symmetry
Music Used
Initially, Dhrupad Classical music was used during the performance
but later in Mughal times Thumri, Tarana, Ghazal were also introduced
Dance - Way of Expression through Bodily Movements where Tribhanga is Noticed
Expression like Happiness, Sorrow, Humour, Comedy, Pathos, Bravery, Fear, Terror & Joy → These are called as Nav Rasa
God of Dance is Lord Shiva and his dance is called Shiva Natyam
Dance is called Natya
This Later Shiva Natyam later became Bharat Natyam
Shiva Natyam has Two Elements
Tandava - Dance of Anger, Universe, Power, Vigorous, Strength etc
Signified Masculine Element
This Tandava when performed in Extreme Anger is called Rudra Tandava
This Tandava when performed in Happiness is called Ananda Tandava
Lasya - Dance of Charm, Beauty, Grace
First Text of Dance is Natya Shastra in Sanskrit written by Bharat Muni in the period of Pallava
Dance is called as the Mother of All Arts
In India there are Two Types of Dances
Classical Dance (8)
Bharata Natyam of TN
Kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh
Kathak of UP
Mohiniattam of Kerala
Kathakali of Kerala
Odissi from Orissa
Manipuri of Manipur
Sattriya of Assam
Folk Dance
Beyond Classical, All are Folk Dance
Classical Music - by Vision IAS
Indian Music
The earliest reference to music can be found in Rig Veda
All those Hymn's of Rig Veda which were sung constitute Sam Veda
Sam Veda is considered as the Veda of Music and it mentions near about 16000 Raga and Ragini (Melodies)
There used to be a special priest in the Vedic period who used to sing the Hymns and he was known as Udgatar.
The later part of Samveda is known as Gandharvaveda which is considered as the rule book of Music
It mentions Nada or Sound as the basis of creation and refers to OM as the first universal sound
Basics of the Indian Music
Swara
Indian Music is considered as Heptatonic, whereby there are 7 pure notes, tone or frequency in Indian Music
Each Swara is made up of many shrutis
Shrutis is the feebles sound which human ear can perceive
The seven pure swaras of Indian Music:
Sa- Sadja
Re - Reshabha
Ga - Gandhara
Ma - Madhyam
Pa - Pancham
Dha - Dhavaita
Ni -Nishada
Raga
It is the basis of melody
It is the combination of different swaras
To create a Raga, there must be at least 5 distinct notes
On the basis of distinct notes, three types of Raga can be created:
Odhva Raga - 5 distinct Raga
Sadhva Raga - 6 distinct notes
Sampoorna Raga - All the 7 distinct notes
Tala
It is the basis of rhythm
It is the arrangement of beats in a cyclical manner
The most popular rhythmic cycles in India are as follows -
Thisra (3 rhythmic cycles)
Chatusra (4 rhythmic cycles)
Khanda (5 rhythmic cycles)
Misra (6 rhythmic cycles)
Sankirtana (7 rhythmic cycles)
Hindustani Music
Initially, there was no difference between North and South Indian Music
The differentiation started in the Medieval times
Moreover, in the Medieval period, the singers of the north started to follow the time, season and mood theory of Raga
After which it was completely branched-off from South Indian Music
In the beginning, the 6 principal ragas were created which are as follows:
Raga - Time - Season - Mood:
Bhairavi - Dawn - Spring - Awe/Devotion
Shri - Evening - Winter - Love and Gladness
Megha - Dawn - Rainy - Courage
Deepak - Afternoon -Summer - Compassion
Hindola - Early Morning - Spring - Sweetness of Young Couple
Malkauns - Midnight - Winter - Laughter
Different Composition of Hindustani Music
Classical Versions
Dhrupad - It is the oldest classical music of India whose origin can be traced back to the Vedic period
Dhrupad is a simple and sober composition which demands efforts from lungs and vocal cords
Dhrupad performance starts with an alap followed by a Jod (interconnector), then followed by 4 composed sections which are Sthayi, Antara, Sanchari and Abhog
Generally, the Dhrupad lyrics were composed in Braj and Awadhi lyrics
There are two musical instruments - Tanpura and Pakhawaj which is always accompanied in Dhrupad Music
Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior popularised Dhrupad
There were many famous dhrupad singers in the Akbar's court which included Baiju Bawra. Guru Gopal Das and Tansen
Tansen was the most accomplished Dhrupad singer of that time
His original name was Ram Tanu Pandey and he was trained in Dhrupad by his guru Swami Haridas
Akbar gave him the title of Miyan ie Master
Gharana - The creation of different Gharanas in Music depends upon the aptitude of Music, Temperament and Dialect
Famous Gharanas of Dhrupad
Dagar Gharana
Bettiah Gharana
Darbhanga Gharana
Bishnupur Gharana
Khayal
Khayal is a Persian word that means thought or imagination
The origin of Khayal can be attributed to Amir Khusro
It is based on romantic raga
Unlike Dhrupad, Khayal has much more freedom in structure and form of singing
But singers must have to emphasize the thought that they are representing in the music
Taan is the special feature of Khayal Music
Khayal performance takes place in two stages - Chota Khayal and Bada Khayal
The famous Gharanas of Khayal - Kairana Gharana; Gwalior Gharana; Jaipur Gharana; Patiala Gharana and Agra Gharana
Semi-Classical Hindustani Music
Thumri
Its origin is associated with the Bhakti and Sufi tradition of North India
It is based on mixed ragas which means devotion and romanticism
There are two popular versions of Thumri - Purbi Thumri and Punjabi Thumri
Purbi Thumri is sung in slow tempo and Punjabi Thumri sung in a fast tempo
Gharanas - Lucknow and Banaras are the famous Gharanas of Thumri
Dhamar
It is performed in the Braj area of UP
It is especially performed during the festival of Holi to highlight the love affair between Lord Krishna and Gopis
Tarana
It was very popular among the aristocratic class of North India
It was created only for the entertainment
It had very few meaningful words
Tappa
It was created by the Camel rider's of North West
Thye used local phrases as lyrics
As such it is noted for a quick turn of phrases
Later singers of Punjab started to compose fast songs under this category
Qawwali
The origin of Qawwali can be traced back to Amir Khusrau who started to compose small couplets in the praise of Allah, the Prophet Mohammad
Qawwali is devotional in nature and is specifically celebrated in the festival of Urs
Ghazal
It is another product of the Persian Influence
It is basically loving poetry but many a time it has an underlying Sufi element whereby God is depicted as beloved
Mirza Ghalib and Mir Taki Mir were the finest initial Ghazal composers
Carnatic Classical Music
Sangeetsara of Vidyaranya is considered as the forerunner of the southern system
In the middle of the 17th Century, Venkatamukhi wrote "Chaturdandi Prakashika" and it became the bedrock of Carnatic Music
In this book, he devised a highly scientific "Melakarta Rag System" on which the Ragas of Carnatic are based
In the modern times, Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande popularised the Carnatic and Melakarta Raga System
Merris College of Music at Lucknow was the first Music College of India in the 20th Century and later it was renamed Bhatkhande College of Music
Components of Carnatic
Ragam- Improvised Alapana in free time
Tanam - Interconnector
Pallavi - Final Composed section which sets melody to a tala
There are Two Popular versions of Carnatic
Kriti - Singing is emphasised
Kritanai - Music is emphasised
Purandaradasa is considered as the Grand Old Person of Carnatic
Male Trinity of Carnatic - Thyagaraja, Shayam Shastri and Muthuswami Dikshitkar
Female Trinity of Carnatic - DK Pattammal, ML Vasanthakumari, MS Subbulakshmi
MS Subbulakshmi is considered the greatest musical figure of India
She was the first person from India to perform in UN General Assembly
She received the Ramon Magsaysay award and all the Padma Awards and Bharat Ratna
Classical Music - by Krithika Mam
From Handouts
Puppetry - By Krithika Mam
Introduction
An Ancient introduced to transmit Folklore
First Text of of Puppetry is Silapathikaram by Ilango Adigal
First Evidence is of Statue of Mother Goddess who MIGHT be a Puppet
Theme of Puppetry would be Ramayana, Mahabharata, Purana or Heroic Stories
Person who hold the puppet is called a Sutradhar or a Puppeteer
Today it is a declining Art
Types of Puppetry from Handout of Mam
Theatres - By Vision IAS
Traditional Theatres of India
Bandh Pather - Jammu & Kashmir
Theme: Satire on society
Swang
Rohtak Swang - Haryana
Hathras Swang - U.P
Theme: Daily life observations with elements of entertainment
Ramlila - U.P
Theme: Life of Lord Rama
Raslila - U.P
Theme: Love affairs of Lord Krishna
Nautanki - U.P
Theme: Satire and Daily life observations with inputs from Hindu religious literature
Maach - M.P
Theme: Complaint about Mother in law
Pandavani - Chhattisgarh
Theme: Pandavas and Alha-Udal
Jatra - West Bengal
Initiated by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu
Theme: Fairs organized in the name of the Lord
Bhaona - Assam
Theme: Presentation of the Ankiya naat of Assam
Bhavai: Gujarat
Theme: Devotional theatre performed during Navratri festivals
Tamasha: Maharashtra
Theme: Entertainment theatre performed by the Fisherman community
It is noted for fast dance on Lavani music
Dashavtara: Goa
Theme: Reincarnation of Lord Vishnu
Yakshagana of Karnataka
Theme: Mahabharata
Mudiyettu: Kerala
Theme: Triumph of goddess Bhadrakali over Asur Darika
Theyyam: Kerala
Theme: Daivam i.e. Depiction of Hindu gods and goddess
Kutiyattam: Kerala
Longest, oldest surviving tradition theater of India
Theme: devotional in nature
Therukoothu: Tamil Nadu
Theme: Life of Draupadi and Worship of Rain goddess Mariamman.
Religion & Philosophy - By Vision IAS
Religion
Buddhism
Introduction
Founder = Siddhartha Gautama
Birth = 563 BC, Lumbini, Nepal
Father = Suddhodana
Mother = Mahamaya Devi (Kosala Mahajanapada)
Raised by : Paternal Aunt Gautami
Varna = Kshatriya
Clan = Shakya Vansh
Principality = Kapilavastu
Wife = Yashodhara
Son = Rahul
Mahaparinirvana = 483 BC Kushinagar
4 Signs of Life
4 signs of life
Sign of Despair
an old man
a sick man
a dead body
Sign of Hope = Yellow Robed Monk
Important Notes and Details
His Cousin - Devdutt, Jealous of Buddha
His Saarthi - Channa
At the age of 29 Siddhartha renunciate his home, which is known as the event of Mahabhinishkramana (great going forth) in Buddhism
He became a Parivrajak (homeless wandered), he started to follow Shramana Tradition
He found a teacher Alara Kalama was an early SamkhyaPhilosopher
After some point in time, Siddhartha once again started to wander.
Finally, he reached the village of Uruvella under a peepal tree he meditated for 49 days, on the midnight of the 49th day he achieved Nirvana
Nirvana → Extinguishment of the Flame of Desire
After attaining Nirvana Siddhartha started to be called Buddha which means awakened one
1st Sermon in the Deer Park at Sarnath- 4 Arya Satya (Noble Truth)
World is full of misery = Dukkha
Cause of misery = Samudaya
Misery can be overcome = Nirodh
There is a path (8-fold path) = Magga (Ashtangika Marg)
8-Fold path = Samyak Drishti (Right vision)
Samyak Vacha (Right speech)
Samyak Kammanta (Right Conduct)
Samyak Ajivan (Right means of livelihood)
Samyak Vyayam (Right Exercises)
Samyak Dhyana (Right Concentration / Right Memory)
Samyak Smriti (Right Awareness about one-self)
Samyak Samadhi ( Right Deep-Meditation)
After teaching for many years Buddha achieved Mahaparinirvana in 483 BC at Kushinagar.
Buddhist Councils
1st Buddhist Council, Held at Rajgriha in 483 BC
Patronized by contemporary king Ajatshatru, presided by Buddhist Monk Mahakshayap.
The major achievement of this council was the compilation of the two important texts of Buddhism = Sutta Pitaka and Vinaya Pitaka
Sutta Pitaka (contains original teachings of Buddha was elaborated by his cousin Ananda).
Vinaya Pitaka (it contains the rules and regulations to be followed by a Buddhist monk in Sangha, It was elaborated by a disciple of Buddha Upali)
2nd Buddhist Council = Held at Vaishali in 383 BC
Patronized by Kalashoka, presided by Buddhist monk Sabakami.
The major development of this council was a division of Buddhism into two sects
Sthavarvadin (Theravadins / Orthodox sect)
Mahasamghika’s (Liberal Sect of Buddhism)
3rd Buddhist Council = Held at Patliputra in 253 BC
By this time 18 Sects of Buddhism had been done
Patronized by Ashoka, presided by Mogaliputtatissa.
To this date it was the most important Buddhist council, in this council, Ashoka removed all the deviations from Buddhism and recognized Theravada as the original sect of Buddhism
This council led to the compilation of Abhidhamma Pitaka which is about the philosophical interpretation of Buddha's teachings.
After this council, Ashoka started Buddhist missionary activities which led to the spread of Buddhism in East Asia, Central Asia, and SE Asia
He also sent his son and daughter Mahendra and Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka for the propagation of Buddhism.
4th Buddhist Council = Held at Kundalvan (Kashmir) in 78 AD
Patronized by Kanishka
presided by Vasumitra
Sub presided by Ashvaghosha
Mahavibhasa (the encyclopedia of Buddhism) was compiled
by the end of this council Buddhism got divided into two Formal Sects
Hinayana (Lesser Vehicle)
Mahayana (Greater Vehicle)
Orthodox Sect
Liberal Sect
No Idol Worship
Idol Worship of Buddha & Bodhisattva
Used Pali Only
Started Using Sanskrit with Pali
Nirvana as an Individual Phenomenon
Nirvana as an Group Phenomenon
Some of the Early Sects of Buddhism
Sautantrika, Sammittaya, Sharavastivadins, Madhyamika or Vaibhashika
These are Obsolete Right Now
Metaphysical Thoughts of Buddhism
The Origin of the Universe
Buddhists believed that the universe was created on the laws of nature
Veda
Buddhists rejected the divine authority of Veda
God
Buddha was agnostic on the question of god. He never answered the question related to God
Rebirth
They believe in ReBirth
Soul
Buddhists did not believe in the permanent soul or eternal soul. They believe in Anicca (Non-Permanence)
They further maintain that it is the Karmic Consciousness or Panch Skandh which takes rebirth
Bodhisattva
Bodhisattvas were the previous birth of the Buddha
They are capable of achieving Nirvana but they postpone their own Nirvana to help all sentient beings on the planet earth
After many lifetimes they progress to the path of the Buddhahood
Jainism
Introduction to Jainism
Jainism is an ancient creed that came to reality due to the contribution of 24 personalities
Adinath Rishabhdev is considered the first Tirthankara
23 Tirthankar Parshwanath is considered as the historical figure who was the son of the king of the Kashi
He renunciate his home in search of enlightenment
He achieved Kaivalya on Parshwanath Hill is in Jharkhand
Kaivalya means Absolute Knowledge
The 24 Tirthankar was Vardhman Mahavir who gave formal shape to Jainism
He took birth in 540 BC in Kundagram (Vaishali).
His father was Siddharth
His mother was Trishala (She was the sister of Licchavi King Chetak)
His Varna was Kshatriya and his clan was Jnatri
His principalities or kingdom was Jnayantrika
His wife was Yashoda.
Mahavir had a daughter named Arhojya
At the age of 30, Mahavir left his home in search of enlightenment
At the age of 40, he reached Jimbak Gram where on the Bank of Rijupalika under a Sal Tree he achieved Kaivalya (Absolute Knowledge)
Kaivalya means Keval Gyan → Absolute Knowledge
After Attaining Kaivalya, Mahavir came to be known as the Jina (The conqueror) and his followers Jaina
Five Vows of the Jainism in Prakrit
Do not speak lie (Amrusha)
Do not commit violence (Ahimsa)
Do not steal. (Asteya)
Do not acquire property (Aparigraha) - For Sustenance Not for Luxury
Observe Brahmacharya(Celibacy)
The last vow or pledge was given by the Vardhaman Mahavir and the remaining four were pre-existing.
Tri-Ratna or Three Jewels of the Jainism
Right Knowledge
Right Faith
Right Conduct
Other Concepts and Thoughts of the Jainism
The founder of the Maurya Empire, Chandra Gupta Maurya accepted Jainism under the influence of the Jain Monk Bhadrabahu
There was a severe famine in Magadha. In this situation, accompanied by the Bhadrabahu shifted to a place called Shravanabelagola in Karnataka
Here he performed extreme penance known as the Sallekhana where he died in typical Jain fashion
The Jainas are also known for some of their extreme practices.
For Example: They forbade not the killing of animals, insects, plants but even germs
Some of the sects of Jainism completely discard the clothes
Jain Councils
First Jain Council
It was held in 299 BC in Pataliputra. It was patronized by the contemporary king Bindusar. The council was presided by the Jain Monk Sthulibhadra.
In this council, the teachings of all the Tirthankaras were compiled in fourteen books known as the Purvaas
Later Bhadrabahu return from the Shravanabelagola which led to fighting between him and Sthulabhadra that further resulted in the division of Jainism into two formal sects.
These sects are Shwetambar (White clads) and Digambars (Sky Clads).1.
Swetambar (White clads): It was the liberal sect of Jainism who wore white clothes.
They believe that women can achieve Kaivalya in this life only
Digambar (Sky Clads): They are orthodox and remain naked by discarding the clothes
They believe that women cannot achieve Kaivalya as they cannot remain naked.
They maintain that women have to observe all practices of Jainism so that in the next birth when they are born as men then they can achieve Kaivalya.
Second Jain Council
It was convened in 512 AD at Valabhi in Gujarat
It was patronized by the Chalukya Rulers of Gujarat. It was presided by the Jain Monk Devardhi Ksem Sramana
The major development of this council was a compilation of all the Jain literature in the Prakrit language
Jain Literature were: Anga, Upanga, Prakirna, Chedab Sutra, Mulasutra and Bhagavati Sutra.
Metaphysical thoughts of the Jainism
Universe: They believed that universe was created on the laws of nature.
Veda: They rejected the divine authority of Veda
God: Jainas maintain that if at all there is any entity like God then he must be below the Tirthankaras
Rebirth: They believe in rebirth
Soul: Jains believe that there are two types of soul in the universe which are an animate soul and an Inanimate Soul
Moksha, Nirvana, and Kaivalya are end of the rebirth
Nirvana and Kaivalya are similar, that after their attainment the person completes his life cycle but in Moksha, the liberation happens with death
Comparison Between Jainism and Buddhism
Practise Questions
Buddhism which was born in India became a very large community of followers but in the early medieval time, it started to decline in its own place of birth. On the other hand, Jainism remained always a small isolated community born in India and always flourished and never declined in its place of birth. Explain the Reasons ?
Practise Answer - Approach
Once Buddha said to his cousin Anand that if women are allowed in the Sanghas then Buddhism which is going to survive for more than a thousand years will vanish within 1000 years at its own place of birth. Later his words came to be true.
The monks became corrupt. Monks started to lead luxurious life and they shunted the path of asceticism.
Monks also started to practice the elite language Sanskrit that was not easily understood by the common public.
Monks started to interfere in the political affairs of the Monarchies after which kings stopped patronizing Buddhism.
The frequent branching of Buddhism into different sects led to the dilution of Buddhism and it also created confusion among the followers.
There was reform within Hinduism which led to its increased popularity.
In the Gupta period, the practice of devotion was highly emphasized and animal sacrifice was discouraged that led to many people coming back in the fold of Hinduism.
There was further consolidation of Hinduism with the compilation of the majority of Hindu religious literature and the construction of temples.
Many of the Hindu texts portrayed Buddha as the 9 reincarnation of Lord Vishnu which led to the assimilation of Buddhism into Hinduism.
Many of the sects of Buddhism like Mahayana and Vajrayana incorporated the Hindu rituals in their folds which further upheld the position of Hinduism.
Buddhists displayed a very high missionary zeal which angered many people in the society.
On the other hand never displayed a missionary zeal, in fact, they always remained a small community firmly in their belief
Buddhist were highly critical of the Varna system and caste system.
On the other hand, the Jainas were critical of shameful practices in the Indian society but they never shivered their complete links with caste Hinduism.
Zoroastrianism- Parsi Religion
It was founded by Prophet Zarathustra.
Holy Text- Zend Avesta
They believe in two types of spirits which are the
Spirit of Evil (Angra Mainyu)
Spirit of Good (Spenta Mainyu)
It is said that the universe functions to balance the operation of both the spirits but many often Angra Mainyu tries to dominate the scenario.
In this situation, the Zoroastrian God Ahura Mazda tries to maintain the balance of who is represented through fire
The worship place of Zoroastrian is known as Fire Temple (Atash Behram)
Parsis are known for their after-death ritual whereby they do not cremate the dead instead the dead body is kept fallow in open to be fed by scavengers.
Philosophy
Introduction to Philosophy
Orthodox Philosophy
Heterodox Philosophy
They believed in the divine authority of Vedas and as the source of knowledge
Kapila Muni is considered the founder of this philosophy and it is the oldest of all the philosophies.
Early Samkhya Philosophy
maintains that Universe owes its origin to nature.
Later Samkhya Philosophy
maintains that not only nature but also the divine agency is responsible for the origin of the universe
Many a time this philosophy is referred to as Dvaitvaad or Dualism because it believes in two realities which are Purush and Prakriti.
Purush is inner consciousness and Prakriti is the element of nature.
They maintain that salvation can be attained through real knowledge.
It mentions three Pramana or Sources of Knowledge that are
Pratyaksha (Perception)
Anumana (Inference)
Shabda (Testimony that is Veda)
Yoga Philosophy
The Philosophy was founded by Patanjali
The tenets of Yoga are mentioned in his book Yogasutra
Samkhya and yoga are considered as Yugma as such they believe in dualism (Purusha and Prakriti). This philosophy emphasizes Astanga Yoga as the path of salvation
Ashtanga yoga refers to 8 phases of yoga.
Yama- Don’ts
Niyamas- Do’s
Asana- Yogic Postures
Pranayama- Breathing Exercises
Pratyahara- Restraints
Dharana- Selecting an Object to Concentrate
Dhyan- Concentrating on an Object
Samadhi- Deep meditation
In Yoga, Kundalini Jagaran is the last stage that happens after the activation of Muladhara Chakra
In this stage, the energy level of the body becomes synonymous with the energy level of the universe.
Orthodox - Yugm 2 - Nyaya & Vaisheshika
Nyaya
It says that knowledge must not be only real but also logical and reasoned.
They quote four Pramana of Knowledge (Sources) - Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upmana (Comparison), Shabda (Veda)
They believe in the Theory of Causation which can be explained in "where there is smoke, there is fire"
Vaisheshika
It was founded by Kanada. His original name was Aulukya. Since he was interested in the study of the smallest particle "Kana", he came to be known as Kanada
With this philosophy, formal strides were made in the sphere of physics
It says the universe is atomic in nature. everything in this universe is made up of atoms.
Atom is the smallest indivisible and indestructible part of the universe
Though they are inactive in themselves, they are put into motion due to God's will.
Orthodox - Yugm 3 - Mimana & Vedanta
Mimansa - Purva Mimansa
It is also known as Purva Mimansa and the founder of this philosophy was Jaimin
the word Mimansa means reflections and it is the early reflections on Vedas
it emphasizes the importance of the performance of Vedic rituals to attain salvation
this philosophy highly emphasizes the concept of heaven which results due to the accumulation of good deeds
It increased the importance of priestly class in Indian society who will provide guidelines in the performance of Vedic rituals.
Vedanta - Uttar Mimansa
It is also known as Uttara Mimansa which means the last reflections on Vedas.
The initial founder of this philosophy was Badarayana. But, later many strains emerged within this philosophy.
The most important ones are as follows:
Advaita Vada (Non-Dualism)
it does not believe in 2 realities
It was founded by Shankaracharya
They highly emphasized Mahavakya- "Aham Brahmasmi" (The god is within Oneself)
He maintains that there is no difference between the creator and the created, the difference that we perceive is because of our ignorance
This ignorance can be eliminated by embarking on the path of knowledge (Gyan-Marg)
Visistadvaita Vada
It is known as qualified Non-Dualism
It was propounded by Ramanujacharya
He maintained that there is one reality but the Brahma has special attributes
To realize the special attributes of the Brahma, one must embark on the path of devotion
The process of devotion will lead one to salvation.
Heterodox - Charvaka
The founder was Carvaka
It is popularly known as Lokayata which means popular among the masses
It is a materialistic school of philosophy. It rejects the authority of Veda, Soul, Rebirth, Salvation & the Concept of God
They consider perception as the only means of knowledge - “Pratyaksham Kim Pramanam”
According to them, the essence of life can be summarized as
That is, Live in the present and enjoy it to the fullest as nobody has seen the future
Heterodox - Ajivika Philosophy
It was founded by Makhaliputra Gosala
He was a contemporary and friend of Mahavira but later he parted ways with Mahavira
Like Jainas, they also used to remain naked but departing from Jainas, they believed in sexual orgies
His philosophy is known as Niyativada- theory of destiny
It says there is no free will, whatever that has happened is happening and will happen. One cannot do anything
It also rejects the theory of soul, rebirth, God, Veda, etc, and calls them fallacies
Religion & Philosophy - By Krithika Mam
Name and Founder of School
Samkhya - Kapila
Yoga - Patanjali
Mimansa - Kumara and Sabaril
Nyaya - Gautama
Vaisheshika - Kanda
Vedanta - Adi Shankaracharya
Bhakti - By Vision IAS
Bhakti & Sufi Tradition
Introduction
The Bhakti Tradition of India can be traced to the Gupta period when they tried to reform Hinduism by emphasising devotion instead of animal sacrifice and complex rituals
The formal beginning from Bhakti tradition started from Tamil Nadu in the 6th century AD
After the end of the Sangam Assemblies, 2 types of Bhakti saints emerged in the Tamil area were Alwars (devotees of Lord Vishnu) and Nayanars (devotees of Lord Shiva)
They started to compose simple poems in praise of God in the Tamil language
The compositions of Alwars came to be known as Prabandham and Prabandha Kavyam
The composition of Nayanars came to be known as Thevarams and Thevarams
It also initiated a progressive movement in the society whereby the cadre of Bhakti was not limited to the privileged class but was open to everyone in society including the untouchables and women
Example: the most famous Alwar saint was a woman named Andel and Karaikal Ammaiyar was the most famous Nayanar female saint
In the 8th century AD, Adi Shankaracharya was born in the state of Kerala
He defended Hinduism on an intellectual level and propounded the philosophy of Adai Tavada
In the 11th century AD, Ramanujacharya of Srirangam highly popularised the Bhakti tradition
He propounded the philosophy of Vishishtadvaita Vada and emphasized that Bhakti is the path of salvation
Later on, the followers of Ramanujacharya propagated Bhakti traditions in the different parts of the country
Vir-Shaiva and Lingayat
In the early 12th century AD Karnataka, Basvana started the Vir-Shaiva tradition from which Lingayat also emerged
He believed Lord Shiva as the ultimate reality and at the time of death, they get united with lord Shiva and never return to planet earth (this world)
They do not believe in Hindu Dharmashastras as such they do not perform funerary rights or cremation rituals, instead, they buried their deads
They questioned many of the practices of Hindu society
Example: the Caste system, the notion of purity and pollution, highly critical to Child marriage, and favored widow remarriage
They included in their cadre people from all the boxes of their life including untouchables and women
They composed their ideas in the Kannada language which were known as the bachnas and Jangmas as such they immensely popularised the Kannada culture & language in the masses.
Bhakti Tradition in Maharashtra
Started in the 13th century.
The initial prominent Bhakti saints of Maharashtra were Jnanadeva & Namdeva, who initiated the Vari Varkari tradition of Pandharpur in Maharashtra
The most popular saint of this tradition was Sant Tukaram of the 17th century
He was from the Shudra section of society and a rebel in many ways
He started to write on Hindu religious literature in the Marathi language
It is said that in all his writings were thrown to a nearby river as such he decided to observe fast unto death.
On the 13th day of his fast, all his books appeared as it is
Vari Varkari saints of Maharashtra with their literature in Marathi further popularised the Marathi Language
Bhakti tradition in North and North-West India
In between the 13th and 17th centuries, a large no. of Bhakti saints emerged in the Northern part of the country.
With their emergence, two types of tendencies also started to emerge in North India i.e
Nirguna Bhakti
Saguna Bhakti
Saguna Bhakti
The adherents of Saguna bhakti believed in a particular form, shape, and attribute of God
According to them, God is mutable and takes reincarnations
For Example:
Tulsidas
Mira Baai
Sur Das
Vallbhacharya
Shankra Dev
Nirguna Bhakti
They believed in formless and shapeless gods (Nirakar)
To them, the god is omnipresent and immutable, and unsearchable
One of the initial examples of Niguna Bhakt was Kabir who was against the orthodoxy of Hindu and Muslim religions
He composed many couplets known as Doha which were his sharp observation on the practices of Society with satire
Another important Nirguna saint was Guru Nanak
He was very critical of the caste orthodoxy of Hinduism and the rigidities of Islam
He also tried to break the caste traditions of society
He started to preach in the form of song and he was always accompanied by a person Mardana, who was untouchable and often played a musical instrument- Rubab
Later on, the teachings of Guru Nanak formed the initial basis of Punjabi Literature and his teachings became a part of the holy text - Adi Granth Sahib
Both Nirguna and Saguna bhakti saints left behind a considerable body of literature in Braj, Awadi, Marathi, Punjabi, Bhojpuri, etc., which further facilitated the growth of regional languages of India.
Bhakti - by Krithikha Mam
from 600 AD (Pallavas) to 1707 AD (Death of Aurangzeb)
Devotion to God i.e Total Surrender without any Expectation
It is unconditional love towards God
It is state of Eternal Bliss → Salvation
It Originated in South India under the Pallavas. Where Two Group of Bhakti Saints Emerged
Alvars - Worshippers of Vishnu - 12 in Number
They Collectively Wrote Prabhandam
Nayanmars or Nayanars- Worshippers of Shiva - 63 in Number
They Collectively Wrote Devaram or Thevaram
Features of Bhakti
Bhakti Promoted Monotheism
Bhakti Requires a Guru.
Examples
Shankaracharya - Sakti (female god) - Sanskrit
Meera - Krishna - Mewari
Chaitanya - Krishna - Bengali
Kabir - Nirguna (formless god) - Awadhi
Gurunanak- Nirguna - Punjabi
Andal - Vishnu - Tamil
KaraikalAmmaiyar - Shiva - Tamil Nadu Pondicherry
AkkaMAhadevi - Siva - Kannada
LalDed / LalDidi - Kashmiri
Tulsidas - Ram - Bhraj Hindi
Ramdas - Shiva - Marathi
Eknath - Shiva - Marathi
Tukaram - Vishnu - Marathi
Ravidas - Krishna - Bhraj Hindi
Surdas - Krishna - Awadhi & Bhojpuri
Bhakti was against varna, jati, sacrifices, rituals, gender discrimination
Example : Meera, Lal Ded, Andal, Akka Mahadevi
Simple Faith attached to god
Bhakti was open to all and it united people and created oneness
Bhakti promoted vernacular language
Encouraged Devotional Music.
Bhajans (Introduced by Meera)
Keertans - Chaitanya
Samas and Qawwali - Sufis
Shabads - Sikhs
Bhakti Created and Unified Pan India
Sufism - By Vision IAS
Introduction
It is derived from the word "Suff" which means a piece of woolen cloth.
Soon after the consolidation of Islam, many of the Islamic theologians started to give dogmatic and scholastic explanations of the Quran, the Hadis, and the Sunnah.
In this scenario, Sufis emerged in the 10th century AD to purify Islam spiritually.
They maintained that one can get connected to Allah with the meditative process and one can incorporate the musical tradition of meditation.
They maintained that they share a direct spiritual genealogy with the Allah and prophet, which they started to call Silsilah
The Sufi hospice is known as Khanqah which usually jas a master (Pir/ Khawaza/ Shaikh/ Murshid) and disciples (Murids)
Chishti Silsila
Founder: Sheikh Moinuddin Chishti (Gareeb Nawaz)
Base: Ajmer, Rajasthan
Sheikh Moinuddin Chishti has immense sympathy for the poor
He started the system of lunger and open kitchen to feed the poor
Another important Chishti Saint was Fariduddin Ganj-e-Shakar (Baba Farid)
His teachings were incorporated in the holy text of Sikhism Guru Granth Sahib
The next important Chishti saint was Sheikh Nizamuddin Auliya of Delhi
He saw the rule of the seven Sultans of Delhi but he never paid a visit to them
He was highly critical of the apathetic attitude of Delhi Sultans towards the public
Suharwardi Silsila
Founder: Sheikh Bahauddin Zakaria
He accepted the official position in Delhi Sultanate as such Iltutmish gave him the title of Sheikh-ul-Islam (leader of Islam).
Language & Literature - By Vision IAS
Introduction
Literature has a Legacy
Literature follows tradition and retains popularity
Literature is both oral and written
For Example: Vedas were in the form of Shruti (oral form)
Script
For a language to be written, a script is needed
For Example: English is written in Roman script
Sanskrit was written in Brahmi Script
Brahmi and Kharosthi are considered as the oldest script of India
Brahmi was Practiced in the mainland part of India
Abugida System
Vowels and consonants.
Consonants are fully written
Vowels are diacritic (not written fully)
Indian languages are considered as one of the most advanced languages in the world
Indian languages follow the Abugida system of writing
As per this system, the written words correspond to the diction/pronunciation
In the Abugida system, consonants are always written, and vowels are used as diacritics
The only exception is when any word is going to start from a vowel, then it is fully written
Sanskrit Literature
Introduction to Sanskrit Literature
Sanskrit was not born in India but it flourished in India, with the arrival of Aryans in India.
It is truly an international language, which transcends the boundary of region and religion, as it was practiced in different parts of the world and by different religions e.g. Persia, Zoroastrianism, etc.
The Four Vedas
Rig Veda
Rig Veda is the earliest collection of 1028 hymns.
On the basis of themes, it can be divided into three parts.
First part: It gives beautiful descriptions of nature, like mountains, rivers, etc.
Second part: It is also a book of prayers and mantras which talks about the development of highly cultured society.
Third part: it is an important source of information about early vedic, polity, society and economy.
Hotra Priest was considered as an expert of Rigveda.
Samaveda
All those hymns of Rigveda which were sung constitute Samveda
Saman means music
There are total 1549 mantras out of which only 75 were newly composed and rest belonged to Rigveda
The later part of Sama Veda is known as Gandharva Veda
Gandharva Veda is considered as the Rule Book of music
The expert priest of Sama Veda is known as Udgatar
Yajurveda
It was the most popular of all Vedas
Which is associated with the rituals and sacrifices
It provides guidelines to the performance of yajna
Yajurveda is divided into 40 chapters
The priest who was expert of Yajurveda rituals was known as Adhvaryu
There are two branches of Yajurveda: Krishna Yajurveda and Shukla Yajurveda
Atharvaveda
The origin of this Atharvaveda can be traced to two Rishis, Atharva and Angira
That is why it is also mentioned as Atharvarasa, and Angira rasa
The expert of Atharva Veda is known as Brahma
Atharva veda is the most elaborate of all Vedas
Atharva veda consists of charms and magic
It also mentions the cure of 99 diseases
It is also a book of Mathematics and Astrology
Extended Text of Vedas
The Brahmanas
They were the first explanatory book of the Vedas, which explains various rituals of the Vedas and its importance.
The Aranyakas
Aranyakas were composed in forests
They are considered as forest books, they deal with the mystery of Veda
They further explain the magical aspect of Veda
The knowledge of Aranyakas is disseminated at the Vanaprastha stage of life
The Upanishads
These are the last explanatory books of Veda
They deal with the philosophy of the Vedas
And most complicated questions like the origin of Earth, of the Universe, soul, life, death, life after death, etc
Satyamev Jayate is mentioned in Mundaka Upanishad
Puranas
Puranas means the one which renews the old
Puranas hold a very important position in the Hindu religion
They tried to expound and consolidate the ideals of Hinduism
Puranas are always accompanied by Itihas (history)
Puranas can be divided into four themes, which are as follows
Sarga: It deals with the creation of the Universe
Pratisarga: Destruction of Universe
Manvantara: Deals with the story of the first Human Being
Vamsa Charitra: It deals with the dynastic History of Ancient India
Classical Sanskrit Literature
Grammar Book
Panini’s Ashtadhyayi
Mahabhashya, it was written by Patanjali. (It is the further explanation of Ashtadhyayi)
Amarkosh: Written by Amarasimha. (It is Lexicography of Sanskrit, the vocabulary book of Sanskrit)
Mricchakatika (Claycart, it is a satire on society): Written by Shudraka
Mudrarakshasa: It provides information about the fight between Nanda and Mauryan Rulers
Devichandraguptam: Life story of Chandragupta-II
Both the books were written by Vishakhadatta
Buddha Charita: Written by Ashvaghosha, Biography of Buddha
Books by Kalidasa
Abhijnanasakuntalam: Love story of Dushyant and Shakuntala
Malavikagnimitra: Love affair of Agnimitra Sunga and princess of Vidisha
Vikram-Urvashi: Love affair of Pururava and Celestial nymph Urvashi
Raghuvamsham: Story of the clan of Lord Rama
Kumarasambhavam: Making of a young god Kartikeya
Two poems of Kalidasa
Meghadootam: Love letter of cloud
Ritu Samharas: Medley of seasons
Other Works
Aryabhatiya: By Aryabhatta, book of astronomy
Rasaratnakara: Nagarjuna (Book of metallurgy)
Charak Samhita: Written by Charak (book of medicine, associated with Ayurveda)
Sushruta Samhita: Written by Sushrut. Book of Surgery. It mentions ophthalmic surgery, rhinoplasty and plastic surgery. It also mentions the surgical instruments
Buddhist Literature
Canonical Literature
They are considered as the most revered works on Buddhism.
As it is associated with the original period of Buddha and his initial teachings.
Canonical literature was written only in Pali language.
Sutta Pitaka: Original teachings of Buddha.
Vinaya Pitaka: Rules to be followed by Buddhist monks.
Abhidhampitak: Philosophical interpretation of Buddha’s teaching.
Jataka Katha (Canonical texts):
Non-canonical Literature
They are also the revered texts but written in both Pali and Sanskrit
Sanskrit
Buddharita
Lalitavistara (Holy text of Mahayana Buddhism)
Pali
Deep Vamsha
Mahavamsa, they are Sri Lankan Chronicles of Buddhism
Mahavastu: Holy text of Theravada
Therigatha: It is the unique text of that time which was attributed to the women, and written by the women
It talks about women’s experience of renunciation.
Jaina Literature
Majority of the Jain Books were written in the Prakrit language, except a few in Sanskrit
They were the first and only text which not only mentions its own doctrines but also the doctrines of the rival schools like Buddhism, Hinduism, Ajivika, etc.
They are also a very important source of Mahajanapada history
Purvas
Angas
Upangas
Prakirna
Chedavsutra
Mulasutra
Bhagavati Sutra
Sangam Literature
Under the Pandya rulers of Madurai, three Sangam assemblies were held
It is said, the first assembly was attended by Gods and Angels, as such nothing survived from the first Sangam Assembly
Only one book survived from the Second Sangam Assembly, which was Tolkappiyam, the Tamil Grammar Book
All the books of Third Sangal Assembly survived, moreover total 473 poets and poetess participated in this Assembly (35 were women)
The most outstanding personality was Andal the poetess.
The literature of this Assembly was classified under two categories
Melkanakku: as the major books, and
Melkanakku was further classified into two categories: Ettuthogai, Pattupattu
Ettuthogai: is the prose
Pattupattu: is the poetry
These books deal with the political exploits of Pandya Rulers.
Keel Kanakku: as minor books. (It deals with ethical, moral code of conduct in society).
Tamil Epics
Silapathikaram: Ilango Adigal
Manimekalai: Chattanar
Thirukkural: written by Thiruvalluvar. It is a highly respected text in Tamil society.
It serves as a manual percept to guide one to noble living.
It is a book of ethical, moral code of conduct.
Urdu
Urdu is a Persian word, which means camp.
It is a language that was born in India due to the synthesis of the present languages in India and the language of Delhi Sultanate rulers.
It is a mixture of Turkish, Persian, Hindavi, Khadi Boli, and Sauraseni,
Amir Khusro was the first person to write in Urdu, but the official recognition of Urdu was given by Bahamani Sultans of Golconda.
