✅ Part 1.2 - Unit 8.0 : Research Methodology

Introduction to Research Methodology

Introduction to Research Methdology

Research methodology is methods used in a particular scientific research. Set of directions, criterion used by researcher to reach up to the conclusion

Research methodology is science dealing with methods and ways employed for particular research

Researcher also preconceived notions he can also have biases, he can be dishonest ,also have errors to fix the errors lets fix the methods

Point to complexity of human beings and human culture, variation in human behaviour certain specialized methods,techinques and research methodology need to be adopted and as anthro as a holistic discipline try to cover maximum aspects of human ,a well-planned scientific research becomes inevitable

RM according to Philips Salzman

In the words of anthro’ist Philip Salzman

Research method is heart of the science, which was invented as it was already understood that human errors which fulfilment, dishonesty and weakness due to preconceived notions cloud commonly distorted the research findings and hence a well-defined research methodology is the prime requirement of any research

the scientific requirements which are used by various studies must be specified in detail so that other researchers can repeat them and the actual replication of findings by other researchers at different different locations can be established and errors can be minimised, subjectivity of human mind can be avoided etc

Parts of research methodology (8)

Universe of Study - Idea about universe of study

Agenda of our study

Sampling

Technique of Data Collection (which one is better)

Data Processing

Data Analysis

Data Interpretation

Outcome of the Research

Research Design in RM (Blue Print of Research) (EDE)

Introduction to Research Design

To Make Anthropological Research Reliable and Valid

any research can be categorised as valid when the outcome of the result is correct and accurate and the same research can be categorised as valid and reliable when the same outcome can be repeated again and again

For Proper Planning and Design in Advance

Thus to make the anthropological research reliable and valid researchers must have a proper planning and design in advance before starting the research

For deciding future processing Methods

it can include the choice of the subject the universe of the research the technique of data collection etc. also it can have idea about the ways in which the collected data would be processed ,analysed and interpreted

Advantages of Research Design

A proper research design not only saves the time but also financial resources and man power.

Types of Research Design (3)

Based on the prior knowledge or information of the subject matter available to the researcher a research design can be of 3 types

3 Types of Research Design

Exploratory

when researcher has little or no information about the subject matter of study & maximum info has to be explored like a fresh

Then research will prepare an exploratory research design, were all the required info has to be collected without any prior knowledge

The participant observation of Malinowski with trobriand islanders was based on an exploratory research design

Descriptive

Then the anthropologist already has info,knowledge about the subject matter and based on that knowledge a research design is been prepared and further exploration is going to be conducted

For Example : Study of Social Stigmas faced by HIV +ve people can be studied through descriptive research design

Experimental

it can be prepared in both the conditions whether already some info is available or not i.e. involving both exploratory and descriptive designs

Here the grp or the community to be studied can be divided into no. of sub groups and are studied in relation to each other

Technique v/s Tools

What is a Technique

Technique is a method used for data collection. It is a part of research method used for data collections using various tools i.e. a particular technique requires some specific tools

Exampe : Interviews, social surveys, case study, geneology etc

What is a Tool

Tools are used to collect the data

Hypothesis v/s Theory

What is a Hypothesis

Hypothesis is the initial theory pertaining to a research for which reliability and validity need to be tested. It’s a precondition for a primitive form of theory. it should be small and easy to understand

What is a Theory

Theory is the tested final hypothesis which is supported by emperical data having the aspects of reliability and validity

Example of Hypothesis : A statement that society also moved from simple to complex forms like the biological beings is a hypothesis

Example of Theory : Theory of cultural evolutionism was fabricated by various anthropologist like tyler,morgan,frazer etc

Anthropological Research Approaches (5)

1. Textual and Contextual

Based on data which is already available, certain traders, certain missionaries

Very early form of anthro’cal research approach adopted in 19 cent primarily by classical, cultural evolutionist and diffusionist like-Tylor, morgan, Frazer. they realised on the facts collected from the text which is already available i.e., the source of info was secondary

Deep study of the articles books reports etc produced by traders, missionaries, administrators etc is done to reach up to a convincing conclusion. these are armchair anthro’st not conducting the field work and are framing the theories on the basis of comparative and chronological analysis of textual facts

Franz boas was the biggest critique/opposed of textual approach as it deals with looking and reaching up to the facts gathered from a research based on the field work i.e., the primary source of data followed by

(DEATY) : Description, Explanation, Analysis, Theory building in research

This approach was initiated by Franz boas when he was studying the tribes of north America. He criticized the arm chair anthro’st as the field situation differs from community to community from humans to humans and culture to culture so textual approach is not reliable and valid

Contextual approach was further expanded by Malinowski by incorporating participant observation in field work

2. Deductive and Inductive

Deductive Approach

Uni Linear Evolution → Simple to Complex → moving in one direction

Example : Fish to amphibians to reptiles to birds to mammals (savagery to barbaric to civilized)

3 Important Concepts based on Deductive Approach are

Psychic Unity of Mankind
Culture Parallels
Unilineal Evolution

Problem

Subjectivity, Pre Concieved Notion, Prejudice
No Empirical Data to Support Arguments i.e Conjectural (Speculative) → based on merely assumptions

Use of logic to reach from general to particular statement i.e drawing the conclusions from something which is not directly connected with our matter of study. This approach is mainly used in natural sciences & mathematics

In Anthro it was employed by CCE (Classical Cultural Evolutonist) like Tylor, Morgan, Frazer based on their textual approach

They derive conclusions about culture and cultural instituions, like in

Unilineal Evolution
Psychic Unity of Mankind
Cultural Parallelism

Textual and deductive approach of CCE was criticized to being hypothetical conjective based on assumptions

Inductive Approach

Inductive approach was promoted by and supported by Franz Boas

While, He studied central eskimos and Kwakiutals (north American Tribes)

Generally all CCE said that socities moved from Matriarchy to Patriarchy in a Unilineal Transformation but Franz Boas while Studying Kwakiutals found that they were patriarchial since start

This Approach was later followed by Functionalist and Structural Functionalist

process of reaching upto general explanations, trends and rules and even theories to an extent derived from a particular fact through observational evidences for various prepositions

Firstly followed by Franz boas in anthro while he was studying central eskimos and Kwakiutls in Canada region through these studies boas rejected not only the deductive approach but also concepts like unilineal evolution ,psychic unity and cultural parallels

On the basis on inductive approach boas showed that kwakiotls in the beginning were patriarchal and later changed to matriarchal an evidence against CCE

Inductive approach was latter structuralist , structural functionalist and even the personality schools

3. Diachronic and synchronic

Approaches

Diachronic - Historic or Developmental Approach

Synchronic - Ahistorical & Non Historical

Diachronic Approach (Historical Approach)

Historical or Developmental Approach i.e. comparison of biological, Socio Cultural and other data or a limited geographical range extended extended for a longer period of time

Used by Evolutionist and Diffusionist

Here Culture is treated as a changing entity wrt to time by evolutionist and wrt to space by diffusionists
In this approach study of culture is from the point of view of changes in a chronological order wrt to different time period. spreading to different geographical areas

Synchronic Approach

This is Ahistorical or Non Historical approach where various elements are used for data collection are considered for a wide geographical area at a selective point of time ; maybe in present or recent past

Much of the focus is not on culture as a changing entity but on the very feature present at that point of time.

This approach used by

Malinowski in functionalism

Radcliff Brown in Structural Functionalism

Thus a Mixed approach of synchronic and diachronic is feasible in Anthropology

4. Emic and Etic Approach

It was Coined and promulgated by Kenneth Pike (Linguistic Anthropologists)

Etic and Emic word is picked from

Phonetics - Etic
Phonemic - Emic

Phonetics means the sounds we actually produce i.e the physiological mechanism

Phonemics is the way we understands the sounds because different words have different meanings

ETIC	EMIC
Outsiders view to define and describe the cultural behaviour	This approach involve the insider point of view i.e. an attempt to discover meaningful structure of a specific culture by understanding internal structural relationships and their inner psychological state
kind of classificatory approach and is non-structural	Emic approach is based on the notion that every socio-cultural reality can have some hidden agendas which can be deciphered with the help of the subject of the study i.e the local people
Analysis can proceed purely by observation and maybe the meaning will not enter into the picture → These are the perspectives of the observer, observed through non participant methods Example : Study of Andaman Islander by Radcliff Brown	Certain limitations of emic studies can be the ignorance of the researcher towards the minor things in day-to-day life.
Biggest limitation of ethic approach is that it is highly subjective and from outside he or she may not able to get access to certain private rituals	when its subject matter gets to know that the grp is being observed behaviour can be changed and some imp elements can be missed
Basic theme behind WHO is universal health care and, in an attempt, to achieve that objective certain primitive or tribal societies need to be taught that certain harmful and traditional practices, certain local treatment can cause serious health consequences. These steps can be taken by some grp as a +ve development but some others cloud see this as an attack on their Lives & Beliefs	Emic approach can promote close cross cultural research in Anthropology
Hence, an Anthropologist must be aware about the insiders view also	ㅤ

5. Positivism, Hermeneutics and Phenomenology

Positivism

Natural sciences / formal science have positivism in them → means data, complex analysis & interpretation

Positivism in Anthropology - one of the founding fathers of sociology august comte tried to replicate positivism of natural sciences in social sciences. This approach in social sciences assumes that human behaviour, social reality, social institutions and sociocultural changes can be objectively measured like the properties of atoms, molecules and matter

This approach was adopted in anthro to study the factual characteristic of real-world observations like the patterns of marriages, religious affinities etc

Malinowski while studying the trobriand islanders used elements of positivism in anthropological research for the 1st time. He argued that systematic application of common sense blended with scientific principles can be the best approach for anthropological research

For Malinowski and most of the positivist human behaviour and culture can be described as an objective reality, he concluded that aim of positivism in anthro is to used the best methods available to collect sufficient info and data as evidences to reach upto the generalisations upto a level maximum possible

Conclusion

maximum prominent anthropo’st in the beginning of 20th cent including boas, brown, Kroeber, g.p. murdock etc claimed that source of anthropological knowledge is our senses when studied in a scientific way

hence anthro should be considered as an Empirical science

Hermeneutics

hermeneutics is the art of interpretation. a science which not only tries to understand the content of a particular subject matter but also tries to understand the logic behind that

Maybe the mental framework of the subject study of humans and their meaningful social products should be studied in the lines of interpretation not merely in superficial ways

Vestehen used Weber was a concept of interpretative understanding to get an idea about the actor’s point of view or the frame of the mind

Clifford Geertz (founder of interpretative anthro) in his essay “thick descriptions” introducesd hermeneutics in anthro based on Balinese cock fight

he maintained that it was not merely an animal fight it was a mirror of socio cultural of balenese people. Hinting about social classes, social recognition for the winners, gender based discrimination

so he interpreted that actual theme of cock fight is human conception delegated to animals

Phenomenology / Phenomenological Anthropology***

Phenomenology for the first time was introduced by C Levi Strauss (Strcuturalist)

Phenomenology is the scientific study of experiences to produce convincing descriptions of the experiences rather than giving explanations and causes.

In other context, physiological study & cultural reality is understood as a life word which is unquestioned, historically conditioned and practical

First use of this approach in anthro can be found in the works of Levis Straus, a structuralist who used religious stories, fairy tales, fox stories etc to understand the structure of the society

In ph’gical anthro a greater emphasis is on the experience of the ongoing flow of life. Thus blocking the biases and assumptions in order to explain a phenomenon in terms of its own inherent system of meaning. the temporary reframement from any statement on its truth or reality is preferred and based on understanding and experiences of the concerned people a logical deduction is employed

For Example : Religion and Religious practises or experiences do not have to be explained but simply understood in the way they are

Like the

Nature man spirit complex of the maler tribe (Sauria Paharia)
Sacred Complex of Hindu Gaya Society as studied by LP Vidyarthi (Laxman Prasad) gives his central role to emotions of people instead of analysing it in the direction of right or wrong

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) & Phenomenology

Involves the methods to enable local people to share enhance and utilise their knowledge of life and the conditions in which they are surviving to plan or implement development projects

this approach has been used in natural resource management, programmes and policies for development of marginalized sections, disaster management, food security etc.

Phenonmenology is Emic approach and PRA is application of emic approach

Conclusion

in the last 25 yrs of ph’logy in anthro it has gained popularity and acceptance in research methods

also towards the expressions of native culture based on the local version rather than collected knowledge of anthropology. It helps in diversifying anthropological study by practically implementing the least ethnocentric approach of the discipline.

a stronger way to frame objectivity and to fulfil the aspirations of anthro’cal research

Unit 8 (a): Field Work Tradition in Anthropology

Introduction

Fieldwork is basically IN-SITU research

Study at natural habitat of the subject matter, habitat like-forest, islands, villages, mountains

Bronislaw Malinowski studied Trobriand Islanders mentioned in his books “Argonauts of Western Pacific”

When we are doing some field work, we will use observation, this observation can be through participation or non-participant observation : Like Malinowski was participant observer, Brown was non participatory observant

In both methods of observation there are challenges. in participant challenge is anthropologist can became ignorant to details. In non-participatory, Emic approach will be missing. biggest challenge in field work is that anthropologist can be under surveillance so anthropologist should develop rappo with the grp or society

Famous Expedition : Torres Strait Expedition, when hundreds of researchers including anthropologist, biologist etc. Haddon, Radcliff brown, WHR river was part of this expedition. With the experience of this expedition, they got idea about field work study. They all came to India then to study the respective studies

Franz boas studied eskimos /intuits in Alaska Canada

In physical anthro Example of field work

Diana Fossey, she studied gorillas in Rawanda
jane goddal studied chimpanzees in Tanzania

Margaret Meat (culture personality school) she studied Samoan islands in Polynesia region of pacific

Edmund Leech studied Kachin Burmese society (Burma) for their political system how they are working

PRA and RRA

Example of Field work. in recent times the methods like PRA and RRA are being employed to practically propagate the field work tradition by bringing about interdisciplinary knowledge for rural development, community participation & resource management etc

Challenges in Field Work Tradition

Development of Rapport for participation in the routine activities of the group

Facing Double Challenge : maintaining the emphatic ligen as well as collection of the relevant info at the same time is a big challenge

Time consuming method, anthropologist won’t be able to studying many societies in the life time

Non participant field work minute details will be missed and emic approach is lacking

A very imp fact which is often neglected in field work is that anthropologist is himself or herself is under surveillance so very high degree of skills and efficiencies required on the part of researcher

When there are 2 different subgrps in the society we are studying if they have rivalry b/n them then it will be the challenge to study

The practical problems excavate in a situation when there are 2 or multiple rival grps within the society to be studied it’s like walking on double edge sword while managing relations and rapport with both the rival grps

Risk associated with exposure to new conditions can be exposure to new pathogens and is applicable in both ways researcher to the grp or grp to the researcher

Collection, compilation, analysis and interpretation of data is a big challenge

Conclusion

in the words of M.K. Gandhi to help the poor one must think like a poor

so to better understand the society or culture, becoming the part of it is unavoidable

so field work tradition and participant observation are ought to be the central themes of anthropological research

Significance of Field Work

Benifit of Field Work

Unit 8 (b): Research Methodology, Methods & Techniques

A scientific and systematic research for relevant info on a specific topic is the backbone of anthropological study. various tools and techniques methods and methodology can be used to reach up to the desired conclusion

Research methodology is the broadest aspect to systematically design the entire research including preparation of a research design, choice of subject matter, formulation of hypothesis even the selection of research methods and the reasons behind that choice also the tools and techniques to be used for that specific method

Research methods and techniques are the terms sometimes used on interchangeable basis as a particular technique used for data collection is a part of the broader research method only.

For Example : in the method of observation technique, photography or videography can be used by a researcher

Research methods are used for collection of data using various techniques or statistical approaches to established a relation b/n collected data and the accuracy of that data. Research techniques are broadly the tools or instruments or apparatus and the behavioural guidelines used to conduct particular research

Conclusion

In simple words research methodology is an overall description of the research process using some specific research methods which are dependent upon various tools and techniques

Unit 8 (c): Tools of Data Collection (9)

1. Observation

Introduction to Observation

In the words of J.J Dollard primary research instrument is observing the human intelligence trying to make a sense out of these experience. so while observing the daily activities anth’gst not only has to interpret the physical acts but also the socio, psycho, cultural expression associated with the actions

Along with the expression, should also try to find out associated, physiological and cultural elements also

Field work with participant observation is one of the prerequisites of anthropological research

Malinowski said to have better efficiency, accuracy in anthro research to have better realization participation in day-to-day activity is imp

Participant Observation

Here, the anthro’st becomes part of daily life of subject matter. They stay with the people (subject matter), to develop rapport, to learn about their culture, to collect minute details

Example

Trobriand Islander(Malinowski)

Coorgs of Mysore(M N Srinivas)

Sripuram Village, Tanjore District of TN(Andre Betteile)

Benefit of Participation Observation

Efficiency, accuracy, minute details, EMIC per respective can avoid the ethnocentric bias

All the required details can be collected objectively as the anthropologist himself is doing the study

Limitations and challenges of Participant Observation 1. When there are subgrps, rival grps collection of collecting and maintaining the info will be a collection

As it is a time taking process, maintenance of records and safety and sustained of data will be a challenge

When researcher is emotionally connected some minute details and -ve elements can be missed

When people know they are getting observation it can change the behaviour, they can mask the natural self for shorter period of time so a longer stay is required

Longer stay is not supporting study of multiple societies

Intentionally or unintentionally, they can be exposed to new kind of pathogens

Conclusion of Participant Observation

it is an attempt to put both the observer and the observed on the same side by making the observer a part of the grp so that he or she can experience what the grp can experience and work within their time frame of reference, gradually participant observation has become one of the most favoured and a prerequisite for any anthropological research

Non-Participant Observation

Introduction

Also called Quasi-Participation

When anthropologist, researcher does not become part of the daily activities of the grp

Not all observation is non participants completely, the anthr’st have to become part to some extent, he can talk to some elders or grp representatives

Not a prominent/common in anthro but prominent in sociology.

Challenge

EMIC insider point of view is missing this can lead to diversion from socio culture reality

Exaple : Radcliffe Brown → when he studied Andaman Islanders (Example of Andman Islander Tribes → Sentinalies, Jarawas, Onges, Great Andamanse, Great Nicobaris) Except great nicobar tribes all are PVTG. Not all studied by brown

Ethnocentric bias can be there, anthropologist can be under surveillance without his or her knowledge

When small scale research with limited no. of people quiz participation is preferred

PVTG - Particularly Vulnerabel Tribal Group - Passing by Reference

Total Recognised is 75 till now

Recognised by Ministry of Home Affairs

Features of PVTG are

Dependent on Forest Produce
Population Gowth rate is very low
extremely low level of literacy
Example

Odisha → 13 PVTGs

Imp Tribes : Dongariya Khonds & Mankidiya

AP + Telangana → 12 PVTG’s

Chenu
Rulas/Irular of TN(these rulers are also scatters in coastal areas of Pondicherry
Khatodi of Gujarat

Jharkhand → Asur Tribe
Madhya Pradesh → Sehariya Tribe
Karnataka → Kota Tribe
Kerala → Chalo Nikan Tribe
North East → Marram Naga
Pondicherrt → Kurulas
UT’s like Delhi & Chandigarh have no PVTG

Habitat rights are granted to forest dwellers, tribals, villagers in forest etc. Main focus of forest rights act is on PVTGs. 1st PVTG to get habitat rights under FRA 2006 is Baigas in MP

Controlled & Uncontrolled Observation

Controlled Observation

It is a method in which anthropologist create an atmosphere for an observation under a planned set of criteria like the predecided questions like the controlled or simulated environment

observation is preplanned and definite can be with participants or non participant ways, used in experimental case study

Uncontrolled Observation

its observation where no planning is done in advance, the researcher conducts the research in real time monitoring or gathering of information, i.e. exploratory case studies

Conclusion of Observation

observation as a toll in anthropological research has acquired a significant place, particularly in socio cultural anthro and applied aspects of physical anthro, wheatear it is participant or non-participant the collected information is of atmost importance in anthropological research and is enriching the content of the discipline since its cradle/birth

2. Interview

Introduction to Interview

Introduction

Interview in words of gopal sarana is a conversation with a purpose and it is more than merely exchange of oral info

Its verbal communication interviewer put questions to interviewee, objective is to collect the info related to their area of research

It gives idea about psychological + mental frame of mind of the interviewee. Firstt rapport has to be developed with them

Interviewer must change the language without changing the frame of question to extract info, so skills are required

Interview alone is not a very popular method of data collection in anthro research but in more common in sociological research

Not used much as an only method of data collection research used as supplementary research with other toll of data collection

Conclusion

If the dose of subjectivity is reduced in interview and the researcher is skillfull along with the desired set of info associated elements of socio-cultural realm /domain can also be desi fired enriching the content of anthropological research

Types of interviews

Directive / Structured Interview

questions are prepared in advance. Hence, it is easy to conduct & has less subjectivity
but there is lack of creativity, spontaneity and improvisation
interviewee is not able to freely express
double dose of subjectivity both from the interviewer and interviewee (interviewer might not understand the answer and interviewee the questions)

Unstructured interview

Example : Kinship studies done by dr. Iravati Karve in Maharashtra
Some space to express freely
Creativity, spontaneity in interviewer and also requires high degree on skills

Repeated Interviews

To Reach upto the truth of some sensitive content by changing the language of the question

Example : In case of Drug usage of college students

3. Questionnaire & Schedule (Interview Schedule)

Introduction to Questionnaire

When you are collecting data for specific topic have for that you have fixed set of questions

One of the most popular and widely used data collection technique in social research

A question is framed which are closely related to each other rand the subject matter, i.e defining the purpose of the study

It’s a tool for collecting and recording info about a particular issue of interest. The list of questions is prepared in a chronological order in a simple and lucid language. All questions are logically constructed and connected and then the questionnaire is conducted on a sample already selected

Not faced to face interaction b/ the researcher and the respondent’s finalized set of questions can be sent through post or mail/through the team members

In general, a time framed is conveyed for reverting the questionnaire

Types of Questionnaire

Closed Ended

Follows the objective approach, as maximum questions has answers in the form of options and the respondent has to answer in the specified options only

not free to express in a subjective manner so due to very high degree of objectivity sometimes the desired answers and the interconnected socio-cultural elements are missed

Open ended

Every question is provided with some space to answer, so some element of subjectivity is there but with that subjectivity there is high probability that the prespondant may deviate from the actual question

Releated Aspects

How should be a good Questionnaire

So, a good questionnaire should be having a blended approach involving both subjectivity and objectivity

Advantages of Questionnaire

framing the questions from simple to complex in a simple language. Questionnaire is economical can cover wider search area and is a time saving process but many times responses are delayed / not being received at all

Disadvantages of Questionnaire

accuracy of answers can’t be verified so easily. So, there is a limited scope of questionnaire in less aware, illiterate and isolated communities

4. Schedule / Interview Schedule

In the questionnaire is connected by the researcher it is termed as a schedule /interview schedule /schedule questionnaire. He the researcher may or may not note down the responses by himself (sath mai jo jata hai pm ke sath voh note karega). when the researcher is noting down the responses it is simply the interview schedule.to get a better idea about the psychological frame work or the mental condition generally researcher is not noting down the responses.

Goode and hatt defined schedule as a name usually applied to a set of questions which are asked and filled by an interviewer in a face-to-face situation with the respondent.

Schedule emerged as an offshoot of questions and schedule is closed to interview

Concludsion

In interview schedule data is gather directly while in questionnaire it is collected indirectly also face to face conservation is a part of interview schedule which is absent in questionnaire, sometimes people are reluctant to divulge the personal info in writing like in open ended questionnaire but a skilful anthro’st and research can extract that confidential info in a face-to-face conversation in interview schedule. So, both questionnaire and schedule generally used with a clubbed approach in anthropological research where the voids of questionnaire can be filled by schedule

5. Case Studies

When the specific case is studied in detail

Defintion by V.K Shrivastava

Gave over view what all elements can be studied in case study -can be based on individual, based on grp,institution,association,total society and community (IGI ATC)
He said it’s a detailed analysis of some generic(common) developments to IGIATC

Defintion by Burgess Social

defined case study as a social microscope, to collect minute details of social reality

Best thing is its in real life context but latter case study also got textual and contextual approach. But initially it was talking about contextual approach

Particularly in the modern complex societies its one of the fab. Method of anthropologist to collect the info

Researcher when studying a particular case will collect the religion, marriage, kinship, political system it will lead to development of hypothesis /monograph essay

“Ego” is the subject matter to whom we are studying or his community. It’s the centralized part of case study approach

Example 1 MNS : Study of coorgs of Mysore is one of the classical case study of India related to Indian society

Example 2 Evan Pritchard : studied Nuer tribes in South Sudan

Example 3 Robert Redfield & Oscar Lewis : Tepoztlan village studied by 2 prominent socio cultural anthro’st

Oscar Lewis came up with life history in Mexican “Tepoztlan Mexican village → Tepoztlan Restudies’’ (name of monograph of Oscar)

Significance

Qualitative approach more promised than quantitative one i.e in dept and complete observation of IGIATC
Better understanding of social change i.e different facets of social units in past and present and also the probability in the coming time
Even the sensitive content and information can be studied through case study approach
case study is serving the dual purpose i.e comprehensive understanding of a particular grp/institution and general theoretical statements about regularities in social structure and also the associated social change

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Limitation

Time consuming, researcher will be stucked with particular grp with longer period
resources can be limited as highlighted by MN Srinivas in Rampura studies that he was getting 75 Rs per month for the entire expenditure

Conclusion

case studies contain personal live records as complete and detailed as possible, and constitute a perfect type of social anthological material, case work represents for enlighting and fundamentally more real records of experiences and hence occupy a significant place in anthropological research

6. Genealogy***

In the words of Malinowski genealogy is a synopsis of a no. of connected relations of Kinship chart

Primary aim of this method is analysis of social organization and arrangements i.e the interpersonal relationships and various living arrangements b/n the members of the society

Collecting genealogical data is as old as discipline of anthro

LH Morgan sent some questionnaires (kinship,family,marriage patterns,family tree) etc to various travels and missionaries or the gov. agents working with native Americans

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However it was WHR river made genealogy famous for anthro research with Torres strait expedition in the essay. “the genealogical method of anthropological enmity”.

Details of the person I. e the subject matter of genealogical study(ego)are collected to trace both the ancestors as well as descendants, it requires extensive interviewing of the individual to trace their descent /succussion. WHR river highlighted the potential applications of genealogy in Kinship terminology, rules of descent, rules of marriage, residence, migration and even religious practic

The biggest challenge of this approach is recalling the info from the side of ego.

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Potential approach of genealogical approach in recent times

Socio economic caste census of India is application of it
Demographic data collection ,census operations ,mapping of residence details etc this data is collected by NSSO
Application in medical anthro to study the history of the disease wrt to some specific grp of people
Identification of beneficiaries among tribals and forest dwellers for rights under FRA 2006

Conclusion

in spite of the best efforts of the field worker this method is entirely dependent upon despondence recalling power so the results can be compromised at certain times but even after certain limitations genealogical studies are significantly used in anthropological research and its applications are getting even wider particularly in socio cultural domain, medical anthro, good governance and the statistical basis for various programs and polices

7. Secondary Sources of Information

Published data - book,magzines,gov.reports,research papers,journals

It can be unpublished data also likeletters,diaries,photograhps,unpublished auto biography

Secondary sources involve the use of documents, media clipping, gov reports photographic or videographic evidences etc. to collected info about people, society and culture whose oral /written testimony is not immediately present, these materials are called secondar materials/sources becoz they are not collected or produced by the researcher himself

Secondary sources can be a published or unpublished data

Antho’st must read the documents critically, paying attention to who wrote them, with what intensions or motivation/influence

Early scholars like Wilhelm smith and sir E. B Tylor shifted towards the artifacts and stories brought that by travellers, missionaries, traders etc and selected only the information which got verified with repetitive findings. this fault data often derives inaccurate or resist conclusions

Conclusion

these secondary sources of info often lag reliability and validity so can’t/should not be used as the only source of info. These should be complementing and supplementing other methods of data collection

8. Life History and Oral History

Life History (as method of data collection)

Life history is in the form of biographies /autobiographies by studying this we will get the detailed info about events, incidents this detailed explanations we can use to interpret some info, data etc

Franz boas rejected this approach (totally unscientific he said),no reliability,credibility,validity are missing.in 2nd half of 20 cent.

Latter certain anth’st used this approach they said it’s not that much reliable and so it can give u border understanding of society and culture it can we used as supplementary method

NISA (Kung woman) in Kalahari desert of Africa in the name of her study was done by Marjorie shostak(American anthro’st)

he discussed with NISA about the problems ,then the outcome study got famous as ’NISA:the life and words of kung woman’’This NISA study was detailed, got famous (position of women, marriage patterns, kinship patters, how the social institutions are functioning was studied)

it was a 3-month long exercise Marjorie said it can be the prime method to study the social change related to characters,instituions,society at large

Oral History (as method of data collection)

is memories, life experiences, stories, when the people share their experiences. Is simple and straight forward technique for gathering info based on individual interpretations of the recent past through direct narration, audio tapes, video tapes etc

9. Participatory Methods

advanced methods/recent methods of data collection

Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)

when local people are involved local people to seek their own solutions based on their priorities like the JFM approach

Let’s co-opt the local people into their agendas, by this time period of research will reduce

It’s the most prominent application of EMIC approach

Participatory methodologies have a strength in exploring local knowledge and perceptions, one prominent characteristic of participatory approach lies in its innovative adaptations of various methods derive from the conventional research and there use in the new and in recent context using some improvised ways often by and with local people

Example of PRA : Joint Forest Management (JFM)

authorities of forest dept + local people they jointly manage the forest resources. These authorities will bring the scientific approaches and local people will bring the conventional approaches. Then these approaches are mix for best management of the forest

Himachal model of JFM in India is prominent(read about JFM)

Example of PRA : Salav Judum (do it by self)

Rapid Rural Appraisal (RRA)

RRA is outcome of PRA ,RRA is the most direct / most relevant derivation of PRA

PRA owes its existence to the convergences of a no. of research programmes based on the expanding aid industry particularly after decolonisation

Becoz quick socio economic data was required for various welfare schemes, various dimensions of PRA can be the participation in action research, agro ecosystems,applied anthro,applied anthro and various field research on different domain

The current forms and use of participatory techniques emerged in 1970s when the aid industry was booming in different parts of the world

When we started in direction of socio-economic justice, PRA started after decolonization, britishers were not providing socio economic justice to Indians, after independence when independence GOI with was actually with Indians then we focus on socio economic justice, started giving aid. There by aid industry was formed, after the decolonisation various NGOs,UN ,doctors without borders formed

Local people were required for aid industries research

Aid industry started booming in india,thiopia,kenya and

Images

Emerged in late 1970s and start 1980s

RRA is the most direct and most relevant practicality of PRA which began as a response in the late 1970’s and early 1980s against the biased perceptions of city-based professional

In simple words RRA is a response to the need of policy makers for access to relevant, timely and accurate usable info

The initial principle that guided this RRA strategy was optimal ignorance (use the required part ignore the unwanted things) i.e the importance of knowing want is not worth knowing, i.e the level of ignore that can be afforde

When policy makers were demanding the credible data related to daily life + we need local touch .timely data,relevenat data we should get .

Conclusion

Principles of RRA and PRA have evolved over time and new principles are still been added to the list based on the practices and experiences like -principles suggested by chambers were based on practical experiences, these principles included of setting the biases, listing and learning, best utilization of community time and cross checking the info with involvement of multidisciplinary team

RRA and PRA emerged an response to rising demands for information ,to frame programs and policies and that too within a short period of time so it became mandatory on the part of researcher to involve local people in data collection using conventional and scientific method

Methods of Research - EMIC & ETIC

In anthropology, folkloristics, and the social and behavioral sciences, emic and etic refer to two kinds of field research done and viewpoints obtained

Emic → from within the social group (from the perspective of the subject)

"The emic approach investigates how local people think…". How they perceive and categorize the world, their rules for behavior, what has meaning for them, and how they imagine and explain things. "

Etic → from outside (from the perspective of the observer)

The etic (scientist-oriented) approach shifts the focus from local observations, categories, explanations, and interpretations to those of the anthropologist

The etic approach realizes that members of a culture often are too involved in what they are doing. to interpret their cultures impartially. When using the etic approach, the ethnographer emphasizes what he or she considers important

Although emics and etics are sometimes regarded as inherently in conflict with each other and one can be preferred to the exclusion of the other, the complementarity of emic and etic approaches to anthropological research has been widely recognized, especially in the areas of interest concerning the characteristics of human nature as well as the form and function of human social systems

Emic and Etic approaches of understanding behavior and personality fall under the study of cultural anthropology. Cultural anthropology states that people are shaped by their cultures and their subcultures, and we must account for this in the study of personality.

One way is looking at things through an Emic approach. This approach "is culture specific because it focuses on a single culture and it is understood on its own terms." As explained below, the term "emic" originated from the specific linguistic term "phonemic", from phoneme, which is a language-specific way of abstracting speech sounds

An 'emic' account is a description of behavior or a belief in terms meaningful (consciously or unconsciously) to the actor; that is, an emic account comes from a person within the culture. Almost anything from within a culture can provide an emic account.

An 'etic' account is a description of a behavior or belief by a social analyst or scientific observer (a student or scholar of anthropology or sociology, for example), in terms that can be applied across cultures; that is, an etic account attempts to be 'culturally neutral', limiting any ethnocentric, political, and/or cultural bias or alienation by the observer

When these two approaches are combined, the "richest" view of a culture or society can be understood. On its own, an emic approach would struggle with applying overarching values to a single culture. The etic approach is helpful in enabling researchers to see more than one aspect of one culture, and in applying observations to cultures around the world

For Example: Robert Radcliffe studied some society where he saw “rain dance” festival and thought of reasons behind such a tradition like the fact that they can harvest different crops, their economy will be revolving, waterbodies will be filled with water, growth of fishery will be available. This outside perspective is ETIC

Then he became part of the village and asked people why they were dancing – most of the reasons were similar to what he thought but then he was told that the dance was an aspect of social harmony where everyone comes together as one. This inside perspective from a person living in a society itself about a particular social event is called EMIC

Earlier ethnologists (ethnohistorians) relied on data that was already available based on research done by others in form of text, blog of travellors, traders and missionarie utilized historical records to study

Whereas ethnographers conducted their own observation, interview, research. Ethnographers and ethnohistorians gradually transformed their work to a specialized element of society or culture leading to emergence of ecological ethnographers, economic ethnographers, psychological ethnographers, economic and political ethnographers, etc

SCA studies the social behavior generally in the institutionalized form such as family, kinship, political, organization, religion, etc. also taking in consideration relationships between various institutions for both simple, small-scale primitive societies and modern complex industrial societies. SCA is generally criticized for focusing more on study of primitive societies

Figure out why there is preference to study primitive societies in anthropology. To figure out the socio-cultural evolution of the people living there

To understand socio-cultural evolution
For better inclusion into the main stream society
Rapidly being transformed so should be studied now or never
To learn sustainable management of nature and natural resources

Methods of Research - Table

Parameter	EMIC	ETIC
Perspective	Inside the culture	Outside the culture
Definition	Focuses on the intrinsic cultural distinctions	Focuses on universal outsider viewpoints
Approach	Based on the subject's perception	Based on the observer's perception
Description	How local people think, perceive, categorize, and explain	The ethnographer emphasizes what they consider important
Origins	Derived from "phonemic", focusing on language-specific aspects	Culturally neutral approach
Account	Meaningful to the actor within the culture	Description by a scientific observer, attempts to be neutral
Benefits when combined	Provides depth to understanding a culture	Broadens the scope of understanding across cultures
Example - Rain Dance	Dance is a symbol of social harmony within the community	Dance may serve economic and ecological purposes
Application	Generally, by ethnographers and ethnohistorians	Ethnographers and ethnohistorians using various lenses
SCA Study	Focused on socio-cultural behaviors within societies	Analyzes relationships between institutions, often criticized for focusing on primitive societies
Reasons for studying primitive societies	- Understand socio-cultural evolution	- Better inclusion into mainstream society
ㅤ	- Rapid transformation warrants study	- Learn sustainable management of resources

Forest Right Act 2006 (FRA 2006)*** - By Ministry of Tribal Affairs

Schedule tribes and other traditional forest dwellers recognition of forest rights act 2006, original name of legislation

Nodal ministry for its legislation is ministry of tribe affairs.

Symbiotic relation of tribe with forest was disturb by British as they exploit the forest before independence ,after independent gov did not do anything so there were protest by tribals this was the reason of naxlism ,left wing extremism .in 2005 gov realised let’s consider forest belong to the forest .

People residing in forest 75 yrs. before 31/12/2005,or 3 or more generations of the individual was residing in the forest .if fulfilled will give them forest right.

These rights were given in 2 directions – first we gave habitat right ,livelihood rights.(can stay in the forest use the forest, you can depend on forest for substance ,to produce minor forest produce but commercial exploitation not allowed)

We gave these rights as individual rights or community rights. (path of forest for individual and for community). Community rights we gave gram sabha (all adult people are included in gram sabha) i.e we are making people part of governance

Prime focus of FRA is on PVTGs

Baigas in MP 1st PVTG tribals to get habitat rights under FRA 2006 H/W for Prelim-find out minor forest produce

Benefits of FRA Giving habitat, livelihood rights to tribals , aborigins, villages settled within or near to the forest.

Promoting local self gov(empowering gram sabha) father of local self gov of India (lord Rippon )

Protection and management of forest and natural resources and promoting social justice

Q)discuss the significance and challenges associated with implementation of challenges associated with forest rights 2006,highlight some recent eg.in this context(20M)-

(Hints)

Maldhari tribes ,bani grasslands GJ

Mankidias simlipal odisa

Dongariya khonds ,niyangiri hills odisa H/w -read out TRIFED

Life history and oral history

-as methods of data collection(not asked till now)

Life history is in the form of biographies /autobiographies by studying this we will get the detailed info about events, incidents this detailed explanations we can use to interpret some info, data etc.

Franz boas rejected this approach (totally unscientific he said),no reliability,credibility,validity are missing.in 2nd half of 20 cent

Latter certain anth’st used this approach they said it’s not that much reliable and so it can give u border understanding of society and culture it can we used as supplementary method

NISA (Kung woman) in Kalahari desert of Africa in the name of her study was done by Marjorie shostak(American anthro’st),he discussed with NISA about the problems ,then the outcome study got famous as ’NISA:the life and words of kung woman’

This NISA study was detailed, got famous (position of women, marriage patterns, kinship patters, how the social institutions are functioning was studied).it was a 3-month long exercise

Marjorie said it can be the prime method to study the social change related to characters,instituions,society at large

Oral History (not asked till now)- is memories, life experiences, stories, when the people share their experiences.

Is simple and straight forward technique for gathering info based on individual interpretations of the recent past through direct narration, audio tapes, video tapes etc.

It’s a powerful procedure that captures recorded info and archives of spoken history

It facilitates a unique articulation of memories and life histories, public experiences of people

It’s one of the best research projects for interdisciplinary study and also for cross cultural relationships of same subject matter

Margaret meet when she was collecting data on Samoan islands (studying girls there) she used oral history for research.

Audio tape,video tape.

Conclusion -both oral and life history share common disciplinary heritages in history and sociology and latter got an entry in anthro.diffrence b/n the 2 is minimal and the 2 terms can be used on interchangeable basis ,generally these are not used as the only methods of data collection but can supplement other tools and techniques of data collection in anthropological research