✅Part 1.3 - Unit 6.0 : Anthropological Thought (Thinkers & Theories)
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✅Part 1.3 - Unit 6.0 : Anthropological Thought (Thinkers & Theories)
Why were most of the studies done in Pacific Region in Melanesia
The Pacific Melanesian region, which includes Papua New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, Vanuatu, and New Caledonia, has long attracted anthropologists for various reasons. Here's why many anthropologists were drawn to the region:
Cultural Diversity:
The Melanesian region hosts an immense diversity of languages, societies, and cultures, which provides a rich tapestry for anthropological study. Papua New Guinea alone has over 800 distinct languages.
This diversity offers unique opportunities to study cultural variation and evolution.
Lack of Western Influence:
For much of the 20th century, many Melanesian societies remained relatively isolated from Western influence. This allowed anthropologists to study cultures that had experienced minimal external impacts.
Kula Ring:
The Kula Ring is a ceremonial exchange system practiced in the Milne Bay Province of Papua New Guinea. Renowned anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski's studies of the Kula exchange system are among the most famous and pioneering works in the field.
Rituals and Initiation:
Melanesian societies have intricate rituals and initiation ceremonies, such as those involving "big men" and cargo cults. These have been fascinating subjects for anthropologists to decode and understand.
Comparative Studies:
The diversity within the Melanesian region allowed anthropologists to carry out comparative studies across different societies and cultures. This helps in understanding patterns of human behavior and cultural evolution.
Colonial Context:
Many early anthropological studies were conducted in the context of colonial administration. Anthropologists were often engaged by colonial governments to understand local customs and governance systems. This sometimes had the dual purpose of facilitating administration and understanding the cultures for their own sake.
Agriculture and Subsistence:
The varied modes of subsistence, from gardening to pig husbandry, provided a chance to understand how people interacted with their environment and how this impacted social structures.
Cultural Change:
The region provided a ground to study the effects of modernization and globalization on traditional societies, especially in the latter half of the 20th century.
Sorcery and Witchcraft:
Many Melanesian societies have rich traditions related to sorcery, witchcraft, and spiritual beliefs. These were areas of keen interest for many anthropologists.
Language and Cognition:
Given the immense linguistic diversity, the region became a hotspot for linguistic anthropology and studies related to language and cognition.
Overall, the Pacific Melanesian region provided a wealth of opportunities for anthropologists to study human societies in a rich and varied context. Many foundational theories and methodologies in anthropology were developed or refined based on research conducted in this region.
Difference Between Acculturation & Enculturation
Acculturation: Happens between two cultures. It involves individuals or groups from one culture adopting elements from another culture.
Enculturation: Occurs within one culture. It involves individuals learning and internalising the customs, values, norms, and behaviours of their own culture.
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Acculturation
Enculturation
Theoretical (English)
People from one culture come into contact with and adopt elements from another culture.
Individuals learn and adopt the values, customs, norms, and social practices of their own culture.
Anthropological (English)
When indigenous tribes of the Americas came into contact with European colonisers, many adopted European tools, religion, and dress while still retaining elements of their own cultures.
Indigenous Australian children learn about Dreamtime stories and participate in rituals and ceremonies of their own communities.
Daily Life Example (in Hindi)
जब एक भारतीय परिवार अमेरिका में बसता है और वहां के लोगों की तरह थैंक्सगिविंग मनाने लगता है।
एक भारतीय बच्चे को उसके माता-पिता से दिवाली, होली जैसे त्योहारों का महत्व सिखाना और उन्हें कैसे मनाना है, यह सिखाया जाता है।
Doubts in CCE
Good Afteroon Sir, Here we have studied, that tylor gave evolutionary stages
but in the differences Between Tylor & Morgan, We have written that he did not gave reference to ethnical periods
✅1. Classical Evolution CCE
Relation between CCE & Darwinism
Herbert Spencers Concept of “Survival of Fittest”
Darwinism is based on the concept of Natural Selection (NS)
Natural Selection is based on Herbert Spencer's concept of "Survival of the Fittest”
Survival of the Fittest" means that the individuals or species that are best fitted or suited to their environment will survive
These individuals or species can adjust and adapt to the changing conditions of their environment.
The Experiment by Charles Darwin → Led to Darwinism
Darwin's Study in the Galapagos Islands
Darwin studied small birds in the Galapagos Islands, which were later known as "Darwin's Finches."
The Galapagos Islands are geographically separated from the mainland of South America, resulting in different climatic and environmental conditions
Natural Selection in Galapagos
Species of birds from mainland South America arrived on the Galapagos Islands.
Natural selection would favor only those bird species that could adapt to the new island conditions, while eliminating the rest.
CCE is guided by Darwinism
This Theory is also called as
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection(NS) {OR}
Theory of Evolution {OR}
Darwinism {OR}
Theory of Pangenesis {OR}
Darwins Evolutionary Preposition
It was introduced for the first time by Charles Darwin in 1859 in his book “On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection”
Also called as “On the Origin of Species”
This Term of Natural Selection was derived from Herbert Spencers Concept of Survival of Fittest
“Darwinism” as defined by Charles Darwin
Darwinism is the process of species change through:
Survival of organisms with natural variations that provide them with adaptive advantages.
This leads to the establishment of a new equilibrium in their environment.
This process is known as evolution by natural selection
Role of “Genetic Diversity” in Darwinism
Descent with Modifications:
Darwin described evolution in Darwinism as "Descent with Modifications."
This refers to the idea that species change over time through gradual modifications in their characteristics.
Variations and Natural Selection:
Variations within species are responsible for the process of natural selection
Genetic diversity leads to variations, resulting in differences among individuals within a species.
Adaptability and Survival
Species with greater genetic diversity have better adaptability to new conditions
Increased genetic diversity improves the chances of survival in changing environments
Trial and Error on a Gigantic Scale:
Evolution through natural selection is a continuous process of trial and error
It operates on a massive scale, involving the accumulation of different variations over generations
Genetic Diversity and New Species:
The accumulation of variations over generations leads to the emergence of new species
Genetic diversity is a key factor in generating these variations within a species
Factors Contributing to “Natural Selection”
Factors Contributing to Natural Selection
Rapid Multiplication:
Species with a higher reproduction rate have a better chance of survival.
Species with a lower reproduction rate have a higher risk of extinction.
Stability of Population:
Some species can adapt to new environments, while others struggle to do so.
Adaptation and acclimatization to new environments contribute to survival.
Limited Resources:
Availability of resources like food, space, water, and nutrients affects the chances of survival.
Access to limited resources influences the success of a species.
Competition Between Species:
Competition arises due to the factors mentioned above.
Intra-species and inter-species competition occurs.
Environmental struggle for existence leads to the inheritance of useful variations and changes in future generations.
Formation of Species
These four factors collectively contribute to natural selection.
Natural selection leads to the formation of new species over time.
This summary presents the factors contributing to natural selection and emphasizes how they contribute to the formation of species. It provides a clear and concise overview of the key points, making it easier to remember and understand.
Criticism of Darwins Theory of Evolution or Darwinism
Successive Generations and Adaptation:
The theory suggests that successive generations become better adapted to their environment, and new adaptations occur through variations when the environment changes.
Criticism 1: Origin and Transmission of Variations:
One major criticism is that Darwin did not fully explain the origin and transmission of variations.
The theory does not address how and why variations arise and how they are passed on to future generations.
Criticism 2: Limited Scope of Genetic Variations:
Darwin's theory primarily focuses on genetic variations as the main driver of evolution.
It overlooks the role of somatic variations, which are acquired during an organism's lifetime, in the evolutionary process.
Somatic variations are not considered to be transmitted to future generations according to Darwin's theory.
Concept of Gamatic and Somatic Variations
Sexual Characteristics are of Two Types
Primary Sexual Characteristics
Males - testes, penis, seminal vesicles
Females - ovaries, oviduct, uterus, vagina
Secondary Sexual Characteristics
Males - Facial Hair & Adams Apple
Females - Enlarged Breasts & Widened Hips
Gamatic is → Characteristics asssociated with Gamets. Gamets are Sperm and Egg.
Sperm + Egg = Zygote = Germ Line
Somatic is → Bodily Characters, other than Primary Sexual Character
Gene Therapy is when you repalce a Faulty Gene with a Healthy Gene
Conclusion of Darwinism
Darwin's Theory of Evolution and its Impact:
Evolutionary Mechanisms and Biological Sciences:
Darwin's theory of evolution provided a comprehensive understanding of the mechanisms that drive the development and diversification of living beings.
It highlighted concepts such as natural selection, adaptation, and genetic variation as key factors in evolutionary processes.
Interdisciplinary Influence:
Darwin's ideas have had a profound impact beyond the field of biological sciences.
Other disciplines, such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, and even technology, have incorporated and applied evolutionary mechanisms in their respective domains.
Application of Evolutionary Principles:
Evolutionary principles, such as natural selection and adaptation, are now utilized by various disciplines to explain phenomena and solve problems.
For example, evolutionary psychology explores how human behavior and cognition have been shaped by natural selection.
Holistic Understanding of Life:
Darwin's theory provided a unifying framework that links different branches of science, fostering a more holistic understanding of life and its processes.
This summary emphasizes the significance of Darwin's theory of evolution in demonstrating the evolutionary mechanisms of living beings and its subsequent impact on various disciplines beyond biology. It highlights the interdisciplinary influence, the application of evolutionary principles, and the contribution to a holistic understanding of life.
CCE - Classical Cultural Evolutionism
Classical Cultural Evolutionism is also called as
Socio Cultural Evolution
Unilineal Evolution
One Directional Evolution
19th Century Evolution
Classical Evolution
Classical Cultural Evolution (CCE)
Introduction to CCE
It was Guided by Darwin’s Theory of Organic Evolution by means of Natural Selection
According to Spencer, Evolution is a change from
Homogeneity to Heterogeneity
Indefinite to Definite
Simple to Complex
Socio Cultural Evolutionism
Stages of SBC
Savagery
Barbaric
Civilised
Hunting / Foraging
Herding
Writing
Fire
Domestication
Aphabets
Bow Arrow
Agriculture
Grammar
Pottery
Iron Age
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Socio-cultural evolution occurred parallel to biological evolution, in a Uniform & Progressive Manner
Many societies followed a common pattern of development: Savagery → Barbarism → Civilization → (SBC)
The concept of SBC was introduced by Montesquieu and later embraced by scholars like Morgan and Tylor.
Criticism of Socio Cultural Evolutionism
The socio-cultural changes from Savagery (S) to Barbarism (B) to Civilization (C) are believed to have internal sources or factors inherent in society since its inception.
These changes are considered to be an internal phenomenon rather than being influenced by external factors.
The process of socio-cultural change contributes to the diversity observed in people, cultures, and societies.
For instance, Émile Durkheim proposed the Theory of Suicide, which attributes suicide to an internal phenomenon known as the "Suicidogenic Current." This internal current is seen as the underlying cause of suicide.
Basic Postulates CCE
Unilineal Evolution
Culture evolved independently everywhere but faced the same stages of development starting from S to B to C
Primitive societies are ancestors to modern and civilized societies
Progressive Cultural Evolution
We move from simplicity to complexity + homogeneity to heterogeneity
Evolutional Potential
Is the potential /the absorbing capacity of a particular society or culture to absorb the outside elements
Simpler societies are having more potential to absorb the changes and as we move towards civilized the capacity decreases, as complex societies have achieved the saturation (which is false)
Cultural Parallels / Cultural Similarities
Irrespective of the locations of the societies there will be parallel discoveries
There will be independent inventions which will take place in all the society but there will be parallel discoveries in all of these societies ,becoz there is psychic unity of mankind\
that is Every where human culture has evolved in the same way and everywhere cultural evolution experienced the same stage becoz of Psychic Unity of Mankind
Becoz human mind thinks in same way that’s why
cultural parallel and similarity happen
Example : agriculture developed simultaneously in South East Asia, South West Asia & America
Hence we can say that, Human mind was essentially similar in different geographical location
Cultural Survival
Specially supported by E.B Tylor
Some earlier traditions and customs that are still surviving today. Like worshiping of sati even after its ban
These are traces from earlier customs and traditions that survive in present day culture as a cultural heritage and the basic objective of this retainment explains the meaning of symbolic
social customs which have lost the significance now but were significant in past
Example : worshiping the goddess sati in some parts of Haryana and RJ even after abolishment of sati system as a symbol to maintain social system
Example : Monarchical Head in UK & Japan even after coming of democracy
Skipping of Stages
Evolutionist said -it is the possibility that some of the societies can skip 1 or 2 stages of evolution
Example : societies and cultures at north and south of Sahara are examples of skipping of stages
Example : North of S. have already reached
the stage of civilization and societies to south were food gatherers only
They copied the north societies i.e They skipped the barbaric and peasant stages
Basic Postulates of Classical Evolutions
Unilineal Evolution
Culture evolved independently everywhere but faced the same stages of development i.e SBC
Primitive societies are ancestors to modern and civilized societies
Progressive Cultural Evolution
We move from simplicity to complexity + homogeneity to heterogeneity + Indefinite to Definite
Evolutionary Potential
It is the potential of a particular society or culture to absorb external elements
Simpler societies have potential to absorb changes. As we move towards civilized socities, the capacity decreases, as complex societies have achieved saturation (which is false)
Cultural Parallels / Culture Similarities
Irrespective of the locations of the societies there will be parallel discoveries
There will be independent inventions which will take place in all the society but there will be parallel discoveries in all of these societies, becoz there is Psychic Unity of Mankind (Human mind was essentially similar in different geographical location)
Everywhere human culture has evolved in the same way and everywhere cultural evolution experienced the same stage becoz of Psychic unity. Becoz human mind thinks in same way that’s why cultural parallel and similarity occur
Example : Agriculture developed simultaneously in South East Asia & South West Asia & America
Survival
Specially supported by E.B Tylor. Some earlier traditions and customs that are still surviving today
These are traces from earlier customs and traditions that survive in present day culture as a cultural heritage and the basic objective of this retainment explains the meaning of symbolic social customs which have lost the significance now but were significant in past
Example
worshiping the goddess sati in some parts of Haryana & Rajasthan even after abolishment of sati system as a symbol to maintain social system
Monarchical head in UK & Japan even after its democracy
Skipping of Stages
Evolutionist said - it is a possibility that some of the societies can skip 1 or 2 stages of evolution
Example
Societies and cultures at north and south of Sahara are examples of skipping of stages
North of Sahara have already reached the stage of civilization and societies to south of Sahara were food gatherers only. They copied the north societies i.e they skipped the barbaric and peasant stages
Conclusion of Postulates
Methodological Approach: Evolutionists employed comparative and historic methods to study socio-cultural evolution.
Sequential but Variable Rates: Socio-cultural evolution followed the same sequence everywhere, but the rate of evolution differed. It depended on the availability of opportunities and environmental factors.
Non-Uniform Evolution: Evolution was not uniform across all societies and cultures. Different societies evolved at different rates and stages.
Iso-Directional and Iso-Sequential: Despite variations in the rate of evolution, the direction and sequence of socio-cultural evolution were consistent across different societies.
Non-Iso-Rate: Evolution did not occur at the same rate in all societies. The speed of evolution varied based on specific conditions and circumstances.
Criticism of CCE
Lack of Scientific Evidence for Evolution of Mankind
Mainly Relies on Textual Approach
Absence of Field Work and Data Gathering
Lack of Empirical Backing
Comparative Method Used by Evolutionists is Flawed
Multiple Evidences Against the Assumption of "Smaller Societies Having Greater Potential to Absorb Innovations"
Points Against Smaller Socities having higher Potential to absorb Cultural Changes
The Amish Community: The Amish, a religious group living mainly in the United States and Canada, have maintained a traditional way of life, resisting many modern technologies and innovations such as electricity, automobiles, and modern forms of communication.
The Himba Tribe: The Himba people of Namibia have preserved their traditional cultural practices, including their distinctive dress, hairstyles, and nomadic pastoral lifestyle, despite exposure to external influences and modernization.
The Sentinelese Tribe: The Sentinelese, an isolated tribe residing on North Sentinel Island in the Andaman Islands, have strongly resisted contact with the outside world. They fiercely reject any attempts at modernization or integration, making it challenging for cultural change or innovation to occur within their society.
Indigenous Tribes of the Amazon Rainforest: Numerous indigenous tribes in the Amazon rainforest, such as the Yanomami and Matsés, have maintained their traditional ways of life and cultural practices for centuries, despite occasional exposure to the outside world. They have preserved their unique knowledge, beliefs, and practices, resisting significant cultural change.
The Sámi People: The Sámi, an indigenous group inhabiting parts of Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia, have upheld their traditional reindeer herding practices, language, and cultural traditions, even in the face of modernization and external influences
Points Against Civilised Socities Not having potential to absorb Cultural Changes
Ancient Greece: The ancient Greeks made significant contributions to philosophy, mathematics, literature, and democracy, leading to advancements in various fields. Their cultural innovations and intellectual pursuits laid the foundation for Western civilization.
Renaissance Europe: The Renaissance period in Europe, particularly in Italy, witnessed a resurgence of art, science, literature, and exploration. It brought about a transformative cultural change, challenging medieval traditions and leading to new ideas and discoveries.
Meiji Restoration in Japan: In the late 19th century, Japan underwent a period of rapid modernization and cultural change known as the Meiji Restoration. The government implemented reforms, adopting Western technology, education, and governance systems, leading to significant cultural and societal transformations.
Industrial Revolution in Britain: The Industrial Revolution marked a profound shift in society, economy, and culture in Britain during the 18th and 19th centuries. It brought about advancements in manufacturing, transportation, and communication, leading to significant social and cultural changes.
Cultural Revolution in China: The Cultural Revolution, initiated by Mao Zedong in the mid-20th century, aimed to bring about radical societal and cultural change in China. It led to the dismantling of traditional institutions and the promotion of communist ideology, resulting in substantial cultural transformations.
Influence of Other Cultures and Environment as Factors of Change
Similar Environments Can Lead to Different Cultural Development
Different Environments Can Lead to Similar Cultural Development
Criticism from Diffusionists and Cultural Relativists
Unilineal Scheme Criticized by Franz Boas and 20th Century Diffusionists
Criticism from Neo-Evolutionists
Unilineal Scheme Criticized by White, Stewards, and Childe
Stewards Advocated for a Multilineal Scheme
Ethnocentrism and Comparative Labels of "Savage," "Barbaric," and "Civilized"
Evolutionist Terminology Reflects Ethnocentric Notions of Superiority and Inferiority
Summary:
The Cultural Evolution Theory (CCE) faces criticism due to the lack of scientific evidence, reliance on textual approaches, and absence of empirical backing.
The assumption that smaller societies have greater potential to absorb innovations is refuted by multiple evidences.
External influences from other cultures and the environment play significant roles in societal change.
The unilineal scheme of evolution is criticized by diffusionists, cultural relativists, and neo-evolutionists who advocate for multilineal approaches.
The use of comparative labels like "savage," "barbaric," and "civilized" reflects ethnocentrism and goes against the inclusive spirit of the discipline.
Conclusion of CCE
CCE contributed to the establishment of anthropology as a scientific discipline
CCE provided significant socio-cultural material for anthropological studies
CCE introduced the principles of continuity and orderly development of culture
Extension of CCE by Marx & Engels
Karl Marx and Frederick Engels developed a theory on the exploitation of the working class in modern societies
Their theory extended the concept of evolutionism
They identified private property, the state, and monogamy as the main institutions responsible for the exploitation
They expanded on Lewis Henry Morgan's evolutionary scheme
Marx and Engels predicted that future cultural evolution would lead to the elimination of private property, the state, and monogamy
This transformation would occur through a revolt by the oppressed classes and the establishment of communism in primitive societies
In their envisioned communist society, communal ownership of resources would be restored
CCE by EB Tylor (1832-1917)
Introduction to E B Tylor
Considered as Father of British SCA
Book Name
“Research in the early history of mankind (1865)”
“Primitive culture (1871)”
Explained Origin, Development & Evolution of Religion
Gave the Doctrine of Tylor
Defintion of Culture by Tylor
“a complex whole which includes knowledge beliefs, art, law, customs, morals and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of the society”
So, in the words of Tylor culture is a product of social learning. It is not hereditary by biology
i.e cultural learning is not by birth ; it is acquired
Acc to Tylor, Religion came into being by the process of
Tylor began with the premise that at some point of time there was no religion and humans started the system of religion
Primitive man was sensitive to envrionment and climatic events which he observed and started asking lot of questions on them
the primitive form of religion was termed as animism by Tylor i.e Spirit worship or the soul worship
Form of culture which was supported by him was Animism (1st form of animism can be considered as naturalism)
Scheme of Evolution by Tylor based on “Religion and Technological&Cultural Development”
Savagery → Barbaric → Civilised
Evolutionary Stages
Tehcnological & Cultural Development
Religious Beliefs
Savagery
1. Use of stone tools
2. Dependency on wild plants
Animism (belief in independent souls and ancestor worship)
Barbaric
1. Use of metallic tools
2. Dependency on agriculture
3. Domestication of animals
Polytheism (belief in multiple gods and existence of souls everywhere)
Civilized
1. Emergence of alphabets, grammar, and writing
2. Scientific advancements
Monotheism (belief in one God and unity of all souls)
Savagery Stage
Use of stone tools and dependence on wild plants.
Animistic religious beliefs involving independent souls and ancestor worship.
Animisim worships Anima, which means soul and has the belief that Soul is Independent and can travel long distances
Through Animism, Ancestor Worshipping Started
Barbaric Stage
Use of metallic tools, dependence on agriculture, and domestication of animals.
Emergence of polytheistic beliefs, worshiping multiple gods
acknowledging that souls exist everywhere, even outside humans
Civilized Stage
Introduction of alphabets, grammar, and writing, along with the development of scientific thinking.
Adoption of monotheistic beliefs, worshiping a single God while recognizing the unity of all souls.
Monetheism - worshiping one God with notion although soul belong to different entities all the souls are one’s
CCE by LH Morgan (1818-1881)
Introduction of LH Morgan
American Anthropologist. Considered as Father of Kinship Studies in anthropology
He worked on
evolution of society - Divison of SBC, S&B into 3 Parts
marriage systems & termination- PC PS PM
kinship society - S/C && PB MC MSP TCT
kinship terms - S, H & E/I
Books by Morgan
“Ancient society”, 1877
” Systems of consanguinity and affinity”, 1871
He Worked with Red Indians
LH Morgan conducted extensive anthropological research on Native American tribes, documenting their social and kinship structures, which contributed to our understanding of human society and cultural evolution.
Germ Ideas → Psychic Unity of Mankind (PUM)→ Cultural Parallels
LH Morgan, like EB Tylor, strongly supported the concept of Psychic Unity of Mankind.
According to Morgan, every society and culture possesses certain "Germ Ideas" that lead to similar patterns of thinking and behavior.
This explains the occurrence of cultural parallels and highlights the psychic unity of mankind.
Germ ideas serve as the foundation for parallel cultural development, resulting in cultural similarities and parallels.
Division of SBC Period
Morgan Stated that Human Cultural History Consists of Three Ethnic Periods, i.e SBC. He Divided Slavery & Barabaric into three parts as follows
Period
Subcategory
Characteristics
Slavery
Lower Slavery
Dependence on fruits, no fire
Slavery
Middle Slavery
Dependence on fishing, presence of fire
Slavery
Upper Slavery
Use of bow and arrow
Barbaric
Lower Barbaric
Dependence on pottery, horticulture
Barbaric
Middle Barbaric
Agriculture, domestication of animals
Barbaric
Upper Barbaric
Use of iron tools, irrigation
Civilized
Civilized
Introduction of alphabet, writing, and grammar
Scheme of Evolution based on “Marriage & Family” by LH Morgan
Different Stages of Marriage are → PC,PS,PM
Evolution of marriage & family by morgan involved 6 stages
Primitive Promiscuity
sexual relation with multiple partners
Consanguineous
When descendants of same ancestor can have marital ties & sexual relations
No Taboo related to Incest Sexual Relations
Incest is Sexual relations with close relatives like → father – daughter, sister-brother, Mother-Son
In the First Two Stages, there was no Taboo associated with Incest
Punaluan
Group of Brothers married to Group of Sisters
1 brother married to all sisters and 1 sister married all brothers)
Hence, 2 or more husbands can be there for a wife and 2 or more wife to a husband
Syndasmian
marriage b/n 2 individual of different sex in an open kind or arrangement
co habitation is not necessary and (either male or female) can be out of bond at any point of time
Patriarchal
marriage of one man with multiple womend
begging of male dominance
Monogamous
Present Prevalant form of Marriage in India
one male with one female
marriage with cohabitation
Kinship Terminologies by LH Morgan
Difference Between Sibling & Cousin
siblings share a direct parent-child relationship, while cousins share a common set of grandparents but have different parents.
Kinship Terminologies
Kinship Terminologies
Description
Descriptive Type - Sudanese Style
1. Different terms are used for different types of kins
2. no two relatives share the same term
3. Siblings are distinguished from cousins, and even cousins have different terms.
4. Different terms are used for father's brother's children and father's sister's children.
Classificatory Type - Hawaiian Type
1. One term can be used for multiple types of relationships
2. Siblings and cousins are referred to using the same terms, there is differentiation only wrt gender and generation
Mixed Type -
Eskimo & Iroquois Type
1. Involves a mixed approach of descriptive and classificatory terminologies
2. Other forms of kinship, such as Eskimo type or Iroquois type, may be used
Socio Political Organization by LH Morgan
Methodology
Morgan used reference of older societies to define kinship and socio political organization and then compared them with the Modern Societies
He used the societus and civitus as the basis of socio political organizations
Terms
Societus
political setup of older societies based on some kinship ties like, monarchical systems
Civitus
politcal setup of modern states based on non kinship ties
Stages given by L H Morgan
PB MC MSP TCT
Promiscuous Board (PB)
Marriage Classes (MC)
Matrisib (MS)
Phratry (P)
Tribe (T)
Confederacy (C)
True Political Organization (TP) (based on territory and property)
To be discussed with political organization in socio cultural anthro
Comparison between EB Tylor and LH Morgan
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Tylor
Morgan
Scheme
Simple
Complex
Focus
Religion
Marriage Family Kinship
Ethnicity
Reference of Ethnical Period Not Given
Reference of Ethnical Period Given
Fieldwork
No
Yes
CCE by James Frazer (1854-1941)
Not So Important, Never Asked
Introduction to James Frazer
He carried forward classical evolutionism in 20th cent
Famous Book
“The golden bough” (1890 -1910) multiple editions
“Totemism and Exogamy” book (1910)
Frazers Theme of Evolution
Fundamentalism of Totemic System
Totemic systems are often described as primitive kinship systems, connecting humans from ancestral to present times, through symbol of natural world
These symbols are totems which are kind of fundamental science of kinship ties
Magic → Religion → Science
Evolution took place in the order of Magic, Religion, Science
He was of the Opinion that
Magic was the first step of mankind to religion, then to science
Magic is Pseudo Science
Magic is the “Bastard Sister” of Science
Compared M→R→S to S→B→C
Magic Parallel to Savagery
humans were having completely wrong ideas and misconceptions that they can control nature with their rituals.
Religion Parallel to Barbarism
religion emerged, in the religion or barbaric stage man realised that nature can be not controlled and thought about some
supernatural power
super humans
divine beings
this led to birth of religion
Science Parallel to Civilization
when science/civilised stage emerged. According to Frazer it was the highest development of mankind with correct laws and reasoning & empirical backing
✅1. Summary of Tylor, Morgan, Frazer
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Tylor
Morgan
Frazer
Scheme
Simple
Complex
-
Focus of Study
Religion
Marriage, Family, Kinship
Magic, Religion, Science
Ethnicity
Reference Not Given
Reference Given
-
Fieldwork
No
Yes (Red Indians)
No
Notable Books
1. "Researches into the Early History of Mankind" (1865)
2. "Primitive Culture" (1871)
1. "Ancient Society" (1877)
2. "Systems of Consanguinity and Affinity" (1871)
1. "The Golden Bough" (1890-1910)
2. "Totemism and Exogamy" (1910)
Gave Defintion & Concepts of
Gave Defintion of Culture
Told How Religion came into being
Gave Definiton of Societus and Civitus
Gave Kinship Terminology of Sudanese, Hawaian & Eskimo Type
Supported
Germ Ideas →
PUM →
Cultural Parallels
Called Magic as Bastard Sister of Science & Pseudo Science
Gave Fundamentalism of Totemic Systems
Works
Evolutionary Stages of SBC for Tech/Cul & Religious Beliefs
Evolutionary Stages of Marriage & Family (PC PS PM)
Evolutionary Stages of Socio Political Org (PB MC MS P TCT)
Compared SBC to Magic, Religion, Science
✅2. Neo Evolution
Introduction to Neo Evolution
Introduction to Neo Revolutionism (20th Cent Evolution)
Three Schools of Thought in Neo Evolution
British School
Gordan Childe (UK) - Pioneer
American School
Leslie White (US) - Pioneer
Julian Stewards (US - Pioneer
Marshall Sahlins (US) - Student
Elman Service (US) - Student
German School
Bachofen (Germany)
Criticism of Neo Evolution (CCE) by Diffusionist School
Diffusionist considered Neo Evolution as Inherently Defective, because
Unilineal Evolution & Psychic Unity of Mankind of CCE were illogical, irrational & was not based on Empirical Data.
More Importantly they ignored the Diffusional Factors in it.
It clearly negated the “Creativity of Human Mind”
Parabolic Curve Theory by Neo Evolutionist
1. Introduction to Parabolic Curve
To counter the argument of Diffusionist's and to rectify the shortcomings of CCE
NES proposed a Parabolic Curve to address the issues of CCE.
This theory is known as the Parabolic Curve of Cultural Evolution by NES.
2. Understanding the Parabolic Curve
The Parabolic Curve Theory of cultural evolution proposes that:
A socio-cultural feature or institution originates in a specific form during its early stages
Over time, it evolves and may take a completely different form.
Eventually, it may return to a modified version of its original form
Example of Parabolic Curve using Communism:
Communal ownership of property and resources (X or Primitive communism) is the initial stage
It evolves into concepts like private property and trust
Over time, it may revert to forms like ownership by states, ULBs (Urban Local Body), authorities, etc. (X' or X''). These represent the evolved or newly developed versions of the initial stages.
In classical evolutionist theory, this progression appears as a transition from communal property to operation to private property (unilineal only).
Neo Evolutionists argue that changes don't necessarily occur in a linear or singular direction
Diagrammatic Explanation
The Sign List
X - Communal ownership of property - Initial Stage
Ia - Intermediary Stage - Private Property (Hard)
Ib - Intermediary Stage - Trust Factor (Soft)
Ix' - Modified form of ownership by state authorities, PRIs, ULB
Ix" - Newly Developed Form with public property. We now have privately owned property as well.
Broad Themes of Neo Evolutionism School
Julian Steward’s → Multi-Linear Evolution (1955)
Introduction to Julian Stewards
Published in the book titled ‘Theory of cultural change’ (1955).
Linking Statement: This foundational work introduces Steward's unique perspective on cultural evolution
Key Concepts:
Parallelism
Cross-cultural Research
Causality
Linking Statement: These concepts form the pillars of Steward's approach to cultural evolution
Explaining Diagram
Linking Statement: This diagram visually encapsulates the essence of Steward's theory
Central Theme of Multi Liner Evolution
The central theme posits that there isn't a singular evolutionary path. Instead, there are multiple lines of evolution, each with distinct characteristics, shaped by the local environment
Linking Statement: This perspective challenges the traditional view of a singular evolutionary trajectory
Environment's Role in Evolution
Steward emphasized the active role of the environment in shaping socio-cultural evolution, contrasting with the passive view held by classical evolutionists
Linking Statement: This active role reshapes our understanding of the environment's influence on culture
Key Principles of Multi-Linear Evolution
Cultural parallels exist, making cross-cultural analysis essential to discern similarities and differences
Linking Statement: Recognizing these parallels is pivotal for understanding cultural trajectories
Multilinear evolution establishes sequences of parallel development and studies them empirically. It employs cross-cultural analysis to fathom socio-cultural change and derive cultural laws
Linking Statement: This empirical approach offers a robust framework for studying cultural evolution
The methodology of multilinear evolutionism hinges on:
Parallelism
Cross-cultural research
Causality
Linking Statement: These methodologies collectively provide a comprehensive approach to studying multilinear evolution.
Cultural Ecology as a Tool for Studying Multi Linear Evolution
Developed by Steward to delve into multilinear evolutionism
Linking Statement: Cultural ecology offers a lens to view the interplay between culture and environment.
Cultural Ecology is the mechanism to fathom the perpetual interaction between environment and man, aiming to make cross-cultural generalizations
Linking Statement: This interaction has always been present, and cultural ecology provides the tools to study it
Steward posited that environment and culture are intertwined in a reciprocal causality—they influence each other
Linking Statement: This dynamic interplay is central to understanding cultural evolution
Cultural ecology elucidates how cultural features and environmental factors interrelate, aiming to reconstruct history and understand cultural evolutionism
Linking Statement: This reconstruction offers insights into the evolution of cultures over time
Humans should view the environment as a living entity, not merely a resource. It's vital to respect and preserve it, avoiding exploitation solely for commercial gains
Linking Statement: This perspective promotes sustainable interactions with the environment
Examples of Multilinear Evolution
Steward highlighted the emergence of 5 complex civilizations: Northern Peru, Meso America, Mesopotamia (Iran, Kuwait), Egypt, and China.
Linking Statement: These civilizations, though distinct, share certain evolutionary patterns
Despite no geographical, historical, or genetic connections, these civilizations experienced similar stages of growth, from hunting-gathering to complex modern forms
Linking Statement: This parallel evolution underscores the concept of multilinear evolution.
New cultural formations, like music and dance, emerged in diverse forms across these civilizations
Linking Statement: This showcases the rich cultural diversity that evolved in parallel.
Steward identified core socio-cultural and socio-political factors driving the parallel evolution of these civilizations
Linking Statement: Understanding these factors provides insights into the forces shaping cultural evolution
He posited that other cultures might also have similar or different evolutionary paths, emphasizing the concept of multilinear evolution
Linking Statement: This reinforces the idea that there isn't a single, fixed route of evolution
Example of Religion
Gordon Childe → Universal Evolution (1892-1957)
Background of Gordon Childe:
Australian archaeologist who later shifted to Cambridge.
Lived from 1892 to 1957.
Objective of Childe:
Attempted to establish an evolutionary scheme of culture.
Utilized archaeological data as the basis for his theories.
Key Works:
Authored books titled "Man Makes Himself" and "What Happened in History".
Concept of Universal Evolution:
Childe focused on universal evolution, encompassing all aspects of social and cultural development.
Evolutionary Scheme:
Aimed to construct an evolutionary framework for human culture based on archaeological evidence.
Each stage of cultural development led to an increase in human capacity to extract more energy and resources from the environment.
Energy and Resources Extraction:
Childe highlighted the significance of efficiently harnessing energy.
Improved energy utilization allowed prolonged human habitation in specific environments.
He drew parallels between technological advancements and genetic enhancements in terms of efficiency.
Iso-sequential and Iso-directional Evolution:
Childe proposed that certain stages of cultural evolution occurred universally and followed a similar sequence.
However, these stages might not occur simultaneously across different cultures.
Evolution's sequence and direction were consistent (iso-sequential and iso-directional), but timing could vary.
Pattern of Universal Evolution:
Childe's theory was not focused on any particular culture.
Instead, it outlined a pattern of universal cultural evolution rooted in technological advancements.
Notes:
Importance of Technological Advancements: Childe emphasized the pivotal role of technological progress in cultural evolution.
Comparison of Technological and Genetic Efficiencies: Childe likened technological advancements' effects on energy extraction to the benefits of genetic improvements.
Sequential vs. Simultaneous Evolution: Childe's theory introduced the concept of iso-sequential and iso-directional evolution, where cultural stages were consistent in order and direction but not in timing.
Linking Statements:
Childe's shift from Australia to Cambridge reflects his dedication to advancing archaeological understanding on a global scale.
His works "Man Makes Himself" and "What Happened in History" were instrumental in shaping his universal evolution concept.
Childe's emphasis on energy extraction and technological efficiency underscores the connection between cultural development and environmental adaptation.
The notion of iso-sequential and iso-directional evolution bridges the gap between different cultures' developmental timelines.
Childe's focus on a universal pattern rather than specific cultures demonstrates his broader perspective on human cultural evolution.
list of concepts presented by Gordon Childe:
Universal Evolution
Evolutionary Scheme of Culture
Archaeological Data as Basis
Energy and Resource Extraction
Technological Efficiency
Genetic Efficiency Comparison
Iso-Sequential Evolution
Iso-Directional Evolution
Pattern of Universal Evolution
Cultural Stages Consistency
Technological Progress's Role
Environmental Adaptation
Broader Perspective on Cultural Evolution
Leslie White → Energy Theory or Technological Theory of Evolution (1900-1975)
1. Introduction
Leslie White (1900-1975) contributed to the study of cultural evolution with a matristic interpretation.
He emphasized universal standards of measurement, distinguishing his approach from Tylor, Morgan, and other neo-evolutionists.
White advocated for a scientific approach to socio-cultural anthropology, centered on generalizing social behavior to develop theories.
2. Fundamental Idea
White's core theory posits that cultural evolution occurs through the utilization of higher forms of energy.
Cultural evolution is proportional to increased energy output by individuals or enhanced energy efficiency.
Culture evolves by using more energy efficiently for work and productivity.
3. Universal Measurement: Energy and Technology
White promoted the use of energy and technology as universal measurement standards.
Energy was quantified as the energy harnessed per capita per year.
He proposed three subsystems contributing to cultural advancement: Technological, Social, and Ideological.
4. Three Subsystems
Subsystem
Description
Influence on Cultural Advancement
Link to Other Subsystems
Technological Subsystem
- Involves technological advancements, tools, equipment, materials for production and shelter.
- Primary influence on cultural advancement.
- Drives cultural progress more than others.
Social Subsystem
- Encompasses aspects like marriage, family, kinship, and religion.
- Influenced by the technological subsystem.
- Progress in technology affects social aspects.
Ideological Subsystem
- Involves ideas, beliefs, mythology, and theology.
- Represents the primitive form of religious emergence.
- Evolution of ideas connected to tech and social progress.
5. White's Equation for Cultural Advancement
White formulated an equation for cultural advancement: Culture = Energy × Technology.
Energy represents the amount of energy harnessed per capita per year.
Technology refers to the efficiency of techniques/tools in directing and controlling energy.
Link: Cultural advancement is a result of energy utilization and technological efficiency.
6. Laws of Cultural Development
Cultural development occurs when energy utilization and technological efficiency increase.
Energy harnessed per capita per year, as well as technological efficiency, play roles in development.
Link: The increase in energy and technology leads to cultural evolution.
7. Development Stages
Different stages of cultural evolution: slavery (muscular energy), barbarism (muscular energy with fire and animal-based energy), civilization (energy from fuels, water, tides, wind, sun).
Each stage corresponds to specific energy sources harnessed.
Link: Cultural evolution relates to the types of energy harnessed during different stages.
8. Emphasis on Technology
White's theory is often termed the "technological theory of evolution."
White underscored the significance of technology in cultural evolution.
Link: The theory's emphasis is on how technology drives cultural progression.
9. Diagram
Energy and technology combine to yield cultural advancement.
Diagram Link: Visual representation of the equation Culture = Energy × Technology.
Notes:
Leslie White's Contribution:
White's approach to cultural evolution emphasized measurement standards and a scientific approach.
He believed in deriving theories from generalized social behavior.
Core concept: Culture evolves with increased energy utilization and efficiency.
Universal Measurement:
White advocated using energy and technology as universal measures.
He categorized cultural components into technological, social, and ideological subsystems.
Technological subsystem is the primary driver of cultural progress.
Equation for Cultural Advancement:
White's equation Culture = Energy × Technology highlights the role of energy and technology.
Energy: Amount harnessed per capita per year.
Technology: Efficiency in controlling and directing energy.
Laws of Cultural Development:
Cultural advancement depends on increasing energy utilization and technological efficiency.
Both factors interact to drive cultural evolution.
Stages of Development:
Cultural evolution occurs through stages involving different energy sources.
Slavery, barbarism, and civilization stages correspond to distinct energy harnessing methods.
Significance of Technology:
White's theory is known as the "technological theory of evolution."
Technology's role in cultural progression is central to his approach.
Diagram:
The diagram illustrates the interplay between energy, technology, and cultural advancement.
It visually represents White's equation and the relationship between the components.
By structuring the content, eliminating redundancy, and providing detailed notes, the essence of Leslie White's Energy and Technological Theory of Cultural Evolution is effectively captured while ensuring comprehensive understanding.
Sahlins & Service → General & Specific Evolution (Mid 20th Century)
Sahlins, Service, Steward & White Relationship:
Sahlins and Service were students of Steward and White.
Dual Character of Evolution - General & Specific Evolution:
Sahlins and Service proposed a dual character of evolution: general and specific evolution.
General Evolution (Stages of Progressive Development):
General evolution progresses in stages, leading from simpler to more complex forms.
Lower forms transition to higher forms, e.g., hunting and gathering to agriculture to industry.
Linking Statement: This concept illustrates the gradual development of human societies.
Specific Evolution (Local Adaptation and Modification):
Specific evolution generates diversity through adaptation and modification.
Adaptations arise due to localized environmental factors, leading to new forms from older ones.
Linking Statement: Specific evolution contributes to the rapid development of local cultures/groups.
Comparison Between Specific & General Evolution:
Aspect
General Evolution
Specific Evolution
Nature
Progresses in stages
Generates diversity through adaptation and modification
Development Path
From simpler to more complex forms
Driven by localized environmental factors
Example
Transition from hunting-gathering to agriculture
Creates new forms from older ones
Context
Illustrates gradual development of societies
Contributes to rapid development of local cultures/groups
Focus
Broad patterns and transitions
Local influences and adaptations
Integration
Elements merge into broader patterns
Contributes to broader elements through local influences
Key Theme
Sequential progression
Cultural diversity due to local factors
Linking Statement
Demonstrates the gradual societal development
Facilitates rapid local cultural growth
Relation between Specific and General Evolution:
Specific evolution's cultural elements merge into broader patterns during general evolution.
Local cultures' aspects become part of the wider picture.
Linking Statement: Specific evolution's contributions become integrated within the broader context of general evolution.
Key Themes of Specific Evolution:
Specific evolution's key theme is cultural diversity driven by local factors like environment, diffusion, and innovation.
Linking Statement: Local influences play a significant role in shaping specific cultural evolution.
Overall Cohesion:
Sahlins and Service's model demonstrates how specific and general evolution are interconnected.
Linking Statement: Their approach highlights the synergy between local influences and broader developmental patterns
Sahlins & Service → Bio Social / Bio Cultural Approach (Mid 20th Century)
Sahlins and Service proposed a biosocial/biocultural approach to studying cultural evolution.
This approach aims to understand the dual nature of cultural evolution.
Linking Statement: The biosocial/biocultural approach highlights the intertwined relationship between biological and cultural aspects of evolution.
They draw an analogy between biological and cultural evolution.
Biological evolution involves the progression from simpler to more advanced species (e.g., fish to amphibians to reptiles to birds to mammals).
Cultural evolution also exhibits general progress, transitioning from slavery to civilization, accompanied by various associated changes.
Linking Statement: Just as biological evolution shows a gradual advancement in species, cultural evolution displays a development from slavery to complex civilization.
Specific evolution in biology and its cultural equivalence.
Specific evolution in biology pertains to the emergence of distinct populations like races, which adapt to environmental and socio-cultural factors.
Cultural equivalence involves various modifications and adaptations influenced by similar factors.
Linking Statement: Specific evolution in biology finds a parallel in cultural evolution where races correspond to modified cultural adaptations.
Example: Distinct human populations and their cultural variations.
Eskimos, Kalahari Bushmen, and Arunta tribe belong to the same human species but exhibit different cultural traits.
These groups adapt differently due to environmental and socio-cultural factors.
Eskimos are fish and meat consumers, while Kalahari Bushmen gather seeds and nuts, and the Arunta tribe resides in a resource-rich forest.
Linking Statement: These diverse cultural adaptations among human populations mirror the biological concept of races adapting to various environments.
Sahlins & Service's theory contribution to socio-cultural anthropology.
Their general and specific evolution theory is widely recognized and scientific.
This theory shifted socio-cultural anthropology toward a more scientific framework.
Linking Statement: The theory by Sahlins and Service brought scientific rigor to socio-cultural anthropology and transformed its approach to cultural evolution.
Notes:
Biosocial/biocultural approach: Sahlins and Service proposed an approach that connects biological and cultural aspects of evolution to understand cultural development.
Analogy between biological and cultural evolution: They draw parallels between the advancement in species in biological evolution and the progression from slavery to civilization in cultural evolution.
Specific evolution in biology and cultural equivalence: Just as specific populations (races) emerge in biology, different human groups exhibit modified cultural adaptations based on environmental and socio-cultural factors.
Example of distinct human populations: Eskimos, Kalahari Bushmen, and Arunta tribe share the same human species but adapt differently to their environments through distinct food habits and lifestyles.
Sahlins & Service's theory impact: Their theory revolutionized socio-cultural anthropology by introducing a scientifically grounded perspective on cultural evolution.
Conclusion to Neo Evolution
Conclusion to Neo Evolutionism
Neo Evolutionism emerged in the mid-20th century with diverse approaches to cultural evolution.
British, American, and German schools, led by figures like Childe, Steward, and White, introduced key theories.
Concepts included Parabolic Curve, Multilinear Evolution, and Energy Theory.
These theories challenged unilinear models, emphasizing diversity and local adaptations.
Environmental and cultural factors were seen as dynamically shaping human progress.
Criticism to Neo Evolutionism
Criticisms of Neo-Evolutionism
Points Made
Linking Statements
Environmental Factors
Lesselei White's technological theory assumed constant environmental factors.
Highlighting the contrasting environmental views within neo-evolutionism.
vs. Cultural Ecology
Steward's cultural ecology saw the environment as an active factor.
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Marvin Harris' Critique
Harris criticized Steward's multilinear view and found cultural ecology confusing.
Underlining the issues with Steward's multilinear perspective and concept of cultural ecology.
Rappaport's Critique
Rappaport faulted White for oversimplifying with a technology-centric approach.
Pointing out the limitations of a uniform technological perspective and acknowledging cultural diversity.
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Rappaport emphasized cultural elements like religion and philosophy in certain societies.
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Multilinear Scheme
Steward's multilinear scheme lacked clarity on the number of directions for a culture's evolution.
Questioning the comprehensiveness of neo-evolutionists' framework due to ambiguity in evolutionary directions.
Cultural Ecology Critique
Steward's cultural ecology disregarded interrelationships between sociocultural factors in different societies.
Highlighting the critique of cultural ecology's failure to address complex interactions and diffusion.
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Neglect of diffusion was seen as a weakness.
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✅2. Neo Evolution (Summary)
Neo Evolutionism Summary
1. Introduction to Neo Evolution
Neo Evolutionism emerged in the 20th century with diverse approaches to cultural evolution.
British, American, and German schools led by figures like Childe, Steward, and White introduced key theories.
Concepts included Parabolic Curve, Multilinear Evolution, and Energy Theory.
Environmental and cultural factors were seen as dynamically shaping human progress.
2. Three Schools of Thought in Neo Evolution
British School
Gordan Childe (UK) - Pioneer
American School
Leslie White (US) - Pioneer
Julian Stewards (US) - Pioneer
Marshall Sahlins (US) - Student
Elman Service (US) - Student
German School
Bachofen (Germany)
3. Parabolic Curve Theory by Neo Evolutionists
Introduction to Parabolic Curve
Proposed by Neo Evolutionists to address CCE's shortcomings.
Socio-cultural feature evolves from specific form to different form and may revert.
Understanding the Parabolic Curve
Example of Communism to demonstrate curve.
Not limited to linear progression.
Diagram illustrates stages.
4. Broad Themes of Neo Evolutionism
Julian Steward’s Multi-Linear Evolution (1955)
General and Specific Evolution.
Local influences lead to diversity.
Relation to biological evolution.
Gordon Childe’s Universal Evolution (1892-1957)
Evolution through energy utilization.
Iso-sequential and iso-directional evolution.
Energy and technology equation.
Leslie White’s Energy Theory or Technological Theory (1900-1975)
Cultural evolution proportional to energy utilization.
Three subsystems: Technological, Social, Ideological.
Biosocial/biocultural approach.
Sahlins & Service's General & Specific Evolution (Mid 20th Century)
Two-fold evolution: general (stages) and specific (adaptation).
Interaction between general and specific evolution.
Neo Evolutionism introduced diversity and local adaptation.
Environmental and cultural factors shape progress.
Emerged with various approaches by key scholars.
6. Criticism of Neo Evolutionism
Different criticisms:
Environmental factors vs. cultural ecology
Marvin Harris' critique
Rappaport's critique
Multilinear scheme's ambiguity
Cultural ecology critique and neglect of diffusion.
This summary highlights the key concepts and contributions of Neo Evolutionism while condensing the information for efficient revision.
✅2. Classical Cultural Evolutionism v/s Neo Evolutionism
Aspect
Classical Cultural Evolution
Neo Evolutionism
Time Period
19th Century
20th Century
Founders and Key Figures
Tylor, Morgan, Frazer
Childe, White, Steward, Sahlins
Approach
Linear, unilinear
Multilinear, Parabolic Curve
Focus of Study
Religion, Magic
Cultural, Social, Technological
Explanation of Change
Linear progression
Diverse paths of adaptation
Role of Environment
Less emphasized
Significant influence
Emphasis on Culture
Yes
Yes
Concept of Progress
Unidirectional
Multidirectional, Parabolic
Mechanism of Change
Accumulation of cultural traits
Interaction between environment, culture, and technology
Stages of Development
Primitive to civilized stages
Various trajectories, no strict stages
Impact of Technology
Lesser focus
Technological advancement as a driving force
Interaction with Biology
Limited connection
Biosocial/biocultural approach
Concept of Adaptation
Minimal
Local adaptation, multiple pathways
Relation to Science
Tylor linked magic, religion, and science
White proposed cultural evolution proportional to energy
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utilization as an analogy
Local Variation
Less consideration
Emphasized, leading to cultural diversity
Criticisms and Limitations
Lack of diversity
Environmental vs. cultural ecology, diffusion
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Ignored local variation
Ambiguity in multilinear scheme
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Simplistic view
Marvin Harris' critique
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Evolutionary ladder with Eurocentric bias
Rappaport's critique
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Neglect of diffusion
Please keep in mind that the comparison is based on the information provided in the summaries, and the complexity of these theories can lead to multiple interpretations.
✅3. Diffusionism and Historical Particularism
Diffusionism and Historical Particularism
Introduction
Emerged as a response against classical cultural evolution, particularly:
1.1. Unilineal theory of evolution
1.2. Psychic unity of Mankind
Diffusionism
Seeks to understand the nature of culture based on:
Origin of cultural traits
Spread of these traits from one society to another through:
Interaction
Trade
War
Migration
Transport
Other interactions
Associated with:
- British, German, and American schools
Historical Particularism by Franz Boas
Belief that culture is a product of its unique history, developed over time based on specific resources and environment
To understand a culture, one must:
- Reconstruct its history to grasp its intricacies and internal value
Associated with:
- Franz Boas and his contemporary scholars and students
Introduction to Diffusionism
Diffusionism emerged as an anti-evolutionist school of thought:
Particularly against the unilineal concept and psychic unity.
The core proposition of diffusionism:
The most significant innovations related to the development of culture, society, etc., originated only at a specific place
From this origin, these innovations spread through diffusion by direct or indirect means, emphasizing the uninventive nature of man.
Tracing Origins:
While it's challenging to pinpoint the exact origin of a specific cultural trait, the diffusion of such traits can be reasonably traced.
Study Focus:
Diffusionists studied the geographical distribution and migration of cultural traits.
They examined various cultural complexes developed in different parts of the world at various time periods.
Transmission of Culture:
Culture diffused to different regions primarily due to factors like:
Migration
Integration
Trade
Culture has grown historically not because of evolution but because of the transmission of culture due to mutual contact.
Definition:
A Culture Trait is described as the dome-shaped architecture and associated elements.
Characteristics of Diffusionism
Adoption of Cultural Traits:
Any cultural group/society will adopt a cultural trait from other cultures only when it is found to be meaningful/useful.
Transformation of Traits:
A cultural trait/features may undergo changes during its migration due to factors like geographical conditions.
Direction of Diffusion:
Diffusion predominantly occurs from developed to underdeveloped cultures. However, some minor features can move from underdeveloped to more developed cultures.
Obstacles to Diffusion:
Diffusion can face obstacles such as geographical barriers, ethnocentric attitude, or lack of transportation.
Frequency and Acceptance:
Cultural diffusion has high frequency and acceptance closer to the origin of culture. As distance increases, diffusion and acceptability decrease.
Concepts Used by Diffusionist
Trait:
The simplest and most basic unit in a culture. It refers to any specific entity within a culture.
Example: The dome-shaped architecture of Mughals.
Complex:
The interconnected parts of different cultural traits within a larger cultural area form the cultural complex.
Example: The combination of red stone, megaliths, and a special adhesive used in dome-shaped architecture.
Cultural Area/Cultural Pattern hello:
A broader region with multiple cultural complexes that are relatively similar, having matching/uniform customs.
Example: The Mediterranean region with its shared culinary, architectural, and artistic traditions.
British School of Diffusion
Introduction
The British School of Diffusion is often termed the Pan-Egyptian or Heliocentric School.
It revolves around the idea that Egypt is the cradle of diffusionism, being the central point of cultural development. From Egypt, civilization, culture, and other elements spread to different parts of the world.
Smith
B. Diffusionism is termed as extreme diffusionism.
Egypt was advanced due to the early development of scientific agriculture. All cultures and civilizations worldwide are connected by the common bond of their origin in Egypt.
Heliocentric: The Sun god is universally worshipped.
Books:
Origin of Civilization
Diffusion of Culture
Smith observed similarities between Egyptian stone monuments and architectural marvels worldwide.
For instance, Egyptian pyramids have characteristics matching Mayan pyramids, Japanese pagodas, Balinese temples, etc. The worship of the sun god is common in Egypt and other parts of the world, evident even in artifacts or English megaliths.
Smith acknowledged that human existence predates civilization. Many primitive, non-literate societies existed without pyramids, indicating no Egyptian influence.
Smith viewed humans before Egyptian civilization as Natural Man, characterized by negative traits such as lack of housing, clothing, government, architecture, etc. A revolution in the life of the natural man occurred when they adopted civilization traits from Egypt.
Perry
Perry didn't make any special theoretical contributions but was a strong supporter of Smith's cultural diffusion from Egypt.
Book: The Children of the Sun
Based on the sun temples of Cairo, Perry tried to decipher the belief system and religious attitudes of Egyptians.
He considered Egyptians as "children of the sun", with the sun god being the only universal deity. This notion of the sun god spread worldwide. The sun god not only governs natural phenomena but also sends rulers as incarnations to maintain peace, law, order, and economic systems on earth.
All civilization traits worldwide are gifts from Egyptian civilization.
WHR Rivers
Participated in the Torres Strait expedition.
Book: History of Melanesian Society
Rivers found no psychological differences in sensory abilities based on race between the Melanesian people and the British.
Rivers popularized the method of genealogy.
In 1904, he studied the Todas of the Nilgiri region in India.
He observed five different burial patterns among some Australian aborigines and Pacific island natives. These patterns, matching those in Egypt, indicated cultural diffusion.
Cultural diffusion hints at successive migrations of Egyptians to these areas over time.
Rivers also noticed racial and facial features among these people that matched those of Egyptians, suggesting that Egyptian males migrated, married local women, and produced offspring with cross-racial features.
Conclusion
The British School of Diffusion, a strong critic of evolutionists, centered on Egypt but couldn't explain the non-inventiveness of the human mind. They also lacked explanations for parallel civilizations that emerged alongside Egyptian civilization, such as the Romans, Persians, and the Indus Valley civilization.
A significant criticism of the British School of Diffusion is their focus on material aspects of culture, neglecting non-material aspects like religion, marriage, and kinship.
British School of Diffusion (Summary Table)
Criteria/Individuals
Smith
Perry
WHR Rivers
Main Theory/Concept
B. Diffusionism (Extreme Diffusionism)
Supported Smith's cultural diffusion from Egypt
Cultural diffusion based on genealogy and migrations
Central Idea
Egypt as the origin of all civilizations
Egyptians as "children of the sun"
Successive migrations of Egyptians to various areas
Key Term
Heliocentric
Sun god as the universal deity
Genealogy
Books
- Origin of Civilization <br> - Diffusion of Culture
The Children of the Sun
History of Melanesian Society
Observations/Evidence
Similarities between Egyptian stone monuments and architectural marvels worldwide
Based on sun temples of Cairo, deciphered the belief system of Egyptians
Found no psychological differences based on race; observed burial patterns matching those in Egypt
Key Contributions
Introduced the idea of the "Natural Man" before Egyptian influence
Considered all civilization traits worldwide as gifts from Egyptian civilization
Popularized the method of genealogy; studied the Todas of the Nilgiri region
Critics/Counterpoints
Human existence predates civilization; many societies existed without pyramids
-
-
Unique Features
Viewed humans before Egyptian civilization as Natural Man
Sun god governs natural phenomena and sends rulers as incarnations
Observed racial and facial features among certain people that matched those of Egyptians
German School of Diffusion
Introduction
Proposed by Graebner and Schmitt, supported by Ratzel and Frabenier.
Also known as the Cultural Circle School or Cultural District School (KULTURKREISE in German).
Germans not extreme diffusionists, not 100% Classical cultural evolutionists.
Key Concepts:
Theory of Cultural Circle:
Elements not discovered simultaneously at a single location.
Cultural traits and complexes developed at different places and through migration in concentric circles.
Different cultural circles reached different places over time.
Innovations and discoveries are continuous and gradual.
Diffusion from Various Places:
Diffusion not limited to Egypt, can occur from other regions.
Culture district as the center from which diffusion occurs.
Civilization Development:
Civilization developed in isolated regions.
Independent invention of cultural practices not common.
Civilization transmitted through contacts and cultural circles (kulturkreise).
Transmission through 2 Circles:
Criterion of Quality:
Similarities between cultures/cultural elements need interpretation as diffusion.
Distance between civilizations doesn't matter.
Criterion of Quantity:
Historical relationship probability increases with multiple cultural contacts.
More changed versions indicate greater geographical distance.
Weaknesses:
Failed to explain certain cultural circles.
Overlooked reasons for acceptance, rejection, or modification of cultural traits.
Criterion of quality lacked productive results.
Insufficient explanation for causes of diffusion and cultural change
Missing : diagram of cultural Circle
American School of Diffusion
Introduction
Led by Franz Boas and later followed by Clark Wissler and Grober.
Emerged to address the unanswered elements of German schools, especially the question: WHY DID DIFFUSION TAKE PLACE?
Aimed to explain the reasons for diffusion where the German cultural circle approach failed.
Maintained that the exchange of cultural traits and complexes occurred through transport and communication.
Believed that the process of imitation of cultural traits contributes to diffusion. Sometimes, borrowing traits is easier than inventing something new.
Groups borrowing the traits might adopt cultural traits useful to them, with modifications based on the suitability and needs of their own culture.
Utilized two main approaches:
Cultural Area Approach
Concept of Age Areas Approach (mainly by Clark Wissler)
Cultural Area Approach by Clark Wissler
A methodology based on the concept that geography governs culture and cultural diffusion.
Instead of analyzing global cultural diffusion at a particular time, they divided the world into different cultural zones or areas based on geography.
Believed that geographical aspects of culture are vital in the study of the culture area.
Groups residing in close geographical proximity exhibit more uniformity than distant ones. For example, traveling through Europe reveals multiple cultural areas, but nearby geographic locations have more similarities. Thus, a culture area is a geographical area with cultural similarities.
The methodology involved dividing a continent/country into different cultural areas, then listing some cultural elements/traits from each area that showed a certain course of diffusion
Diffusion to Nearby Areas: Clark Wissler supported this idea using food and eating habits as criteria for constructing a cultural area, transitioning from food areas to culture areas.
Concepts of Age Area by Clark Wissler
Derived from the cultural area concept.
If a cultural trait is found in a wider area with more matching features, it must have diffused a long time ago, making it an older element. Conversely, if the distribution of cultural traits is limited in terms of area covered and number of characters diffused, it can be inferred as a newer element.
A comprehensive study of diffusion is possible only when both the culture area and age area approaches are combined.
Typology of Diffusion by Clark Wissler
Note : can be asked as a short note
Criteria
Natural Diffusion
Organized Diffusion
Definition
Diffusion without intentional cultural imposition.
Diffusion with intentional cultural imposition.
Characteristics
1. Slow/gradual in nature.
1. Quickly transmitted.
Example
Maize cultivation culture shifted from Mexico to India.
Missionaries preaching their religion.
Cultural Acculturation by Kroeber (Very Important)
Diffusion: Refers to what is happening to elements of culture. It is narrower in scope.
Acculturation: Refers to what is happening to the entire culture, making it broader/wider in scope.
Key Point: Diffusion is a subset of acculturation. Acculturation is necessarily involved in diffusion, and if diffusion is taking place, it will contribute to acculturation.
Acculturation Process: It is a systematic cultural change of a particular society carried out by an alien, initiated from the outside by a dominant society. This change is brought about by mutual and direct contact between members of both societies.
Outcome: The minority culture people learn the language, habits, and values of a dominant culture through the cultural process of acculturation.
Assimilation: The process by which people try to emulate/acquire the political, economic, and educational standards of a dominant culture. Through assimilation, individuals become a part of the dominant culture.
Extension: This notion was extended by MN Srinivas in the form of Sanskritization and further by Luis Dumont as elite emulation.
Elite Emulation: Further elaborated by Indologists. The concept is that vulnerable people of any region copy the lifestyles of the dominant caste (landlords, political authority).
Sanskritization (M.N Sriniwas): Initially, MNS used the term "brahmanization" where lower status/lower caste individuals copied the rituals/practices of Brahmins to elevate their social status. Later, he realised this concept was too narrow by restricting it to Brahmins alone.
Kroeber's View:
Kroeber believed that acculturation is gradual rather than abrupt. By the mid of the 20th century, studies of acculturation replaced diffusion as the primary focus of anthropological research.
Krober connected the process of acculturation with diffusion, considering that:
Diffusion contributes to acculturation.
Acculturation necessarily involves diffusion.
He also attempted to separate these processes by stating that diffusion affects elements of culture, while acculturation impacts the whole culture.
Conclusion of American School of Diffusionism
Introduction:
The American schools of diffusion aimed to enhance the initial school of diffusion by introducing reasoning behind cultural diffusion.
Shortcomings:
Culture Area Approach: This approach failed to evolve into a practical and empirical method.
Overemphasis on Material Culture: There was a significant focus on material culture, leading to an inability to explain non-material cultures.
Geographical Factors: Excessive emphasis was placed on geographical elements.
Ignorance of Psychological Factors: The school completely overlooked the importance of psychological aspects.
Comparison between creeper and Clark Wissler
Aspect/Concept
Clark Wissler
Kroeber
Introduction
- Advocated for understanding reasons behind diffusion. <br> - Emphasized cultural trait exchange via transport and communication.
Similar views as Wissler.
Cultural Area Approach
- Believed geography dictates cultural diffusion. <br> - Introduced cultural zones based on geography.
Acknowledged its importance; less contribution.
Concept of Age Areas
- Linked cultural trait age to its distribution. <br> - Advocated for combining culture and age area approaches.
Recognized its significance; less contribution.
Typology of Diffusion
- Differentiated between natural and organized diffusion.
Limited contribution.
Cultural Acculturation
- Acknowledged acculturation's significance.
- Distinguished between diffusion and acculturation. <br> - Introduced assimilation and elite emulation concepts.
Conclusion
- Pioneered in emphasizing geography's role in diffusion.
- Stressed on acculturation and its tie with diffusion.
This table offers a succinct comparison of Clark Wissler's and Kroeber's contributions to the American School of Diffusion.
Comparison of British, German & American School of Diffusion
- Franz Boas <br> - Clark Wissler <br> - Grober <br> - Kroeber
Introduction
- Egypt as the cradle of diffusionism. <br> - Civilization and culture spread from Egypt to different parts of the world.
- Proposed by Graebner and Schmitt. <br> - Known as the Cultural Circle School. <br> - Emphasizes diffusion from various places, not just Egypt.
- Led by Franz Boas, followed by Clark Wissler and Grober. <br> - Addressed unanswered elements of German schools.
Main Theory/Concept
- Extreme diffusionism. <br> - All cultures connected by their origin in Egypt.
- Theory of Cultural Circle. <br> - Elements developed at different places and spread through migration in concentric circles.
- Understanding reasons behind diffusion. <br> - Exchange of cultural traits through transport and communication.
Key Concepts
- Heliocentric: Sun god is universally worshipped. <br> - Civilization traits worldwide are gifts from Egyptian civilization.
- Diffusion from various places. <br> - Civilization developed in isolated regions. <br> - Transmission through two circles: Criterion of Quality and Criterion of Quantity.
- Cultural Area Approach. <br> - Concept of Age Areas. <br> - Typology of Diffusion. <br> - Cultural Acculturation.
Evidence/Observations
- Similarities between Egyptian stone monuments and architectural marvels worldwide. <br> - Worship of the sun god is common in Egypt and other parts of the world.
- Groups residing in close geographical proximity exhibit more uniformity. <br> - Cultural diffusion has high frequency and acceptance closer to the origin of culture.
Books/Publications
- Smith: "Origin of Civilization", "Diffusion of Culture". <br> - Perry: "The Children of the Sun". <br> - WHR Rivers: "History of Melanesian Society".
- (Missing specific books/publications for the German school)
- (Specific books/publications for American school thinkers not mentioned)
Conclusion/Critics
- Focus on material aspects of culture, neglecting non-material aspects. <br> - Couldn't explain the non-inventiveness of the human mind.
- Failed to explain certain cultural circles. <br> - Overlooked reasons for acceptance, rejection, or modification of cultural traits.
- Culture Area Approach failed to evolve into a practical method. <br> - Overemphasis on material culture and geographical elements.
Historical Particularism
Introduction:
Franz Boas (1858-1942): A pioneer for the diffusionist approach.
O.T Mason: An evolutionist who believed that products from the industry, such as gems and jewellery, pottery figurines, and musical instruments, have similarities. He tried to establish cultural parallels (they have universality), similar to what diffusionists proposed.
Boas's Perspective: Boas emphasized that based on geographical proximity, there will be better insights. For instance, he studied Indian tribes in different parts of North America and found that cultural ties among people living in close proximity are matching.
Prominent Works:
Books by Franz Boas:
'The Central Eskimos'
'The Mind of Primitive Man'
Key Concept: Boas stated that the geographical continuity of the distribution of cultural traits is a major proof for historical connections and the diffusion of traits.
Definition of HP:
Historical Particularism: According to Boas, it is an approach where every society and culture is seen as a unique and collective representation of its own distinct historical context.
Boas's Critique of Evolutionism:
Boas outrightly rejected unilineal evolution, evolutionary survivals, and cultural parallels of classical cultural evolutionists. He believed they were based on weak data without any fieldwork, lacking empirical or scientific methodology.
Against parallel evolutionism, Boas argued that societies could reach the same level of cultural development through different trajectories.
HP Approach:
Boas's HP approach claims that each society has its own unique historical development and must be understood based on its specific cultural and environmental context.
Three Factors Influencing Traits and Cultures:
Environmental
Psychological
Historical connections (most important according to Boas)
Boasian Approach to Anthropology:
Boas viewed anthropology as intellectually flawed if anthropologists did not use data from fieldwork and participant observation.
He believed that each culture is unique, and anthropologists must be free from ethnocentric bias.
The best comparative study aspect, according to Boas, is cultural relativism. This means understanding the beauty and morality of each culture in its own terms without any ethnocentric sentiments.
Later, Boas acknowledged the role of individuals, their psychological makeup, and personalities in culture formation. The interplay between culture and personality was further analyzed by his students, Margaret Mead and Ruth Benedict, in the culture and personality school.
Weaknesses of the Boasian Approach:
Ignored the concepts of society, placing more emphasis on culture.
Some level of bias in the researcher's mind is unavoidable.
Failed to define general laws governing human behavior and cultures.
Elements of cultural and social change were not addressed properly.
Comparison Between Historical Particularism & Diffusionism
Criteria
Diffusionism
Historical Particularism (by Franz Boas)
Introduction
Emerged as a response against classical cultural evolution, particularly unilineal theory of evolution and psychic unity of mankind.
Emerged as a response against classical cultural evolution, particularly unilineal theory of evolution and psychic unity of mankind.
Core Beliefs
1. Origin of cultural traits <br> 2. Spread of these traits through interaction, trade, war, migration, etc.
1. Culture is a product of its unique history. <br> 2. Developed over time based on specific resources and environment.
Associated Schools
British, German, and American schools
Franz Boas and his contemporary scholars and students
Key Concepts
1. Trait <br> 2. Complex <br> 3. Cultural Area/Cultural Pattern
1. Cultural Relativism <br> 2. Role of Environment, Psychology, and History in shaping culture
Methodology
Focuses on the geographical distribution and migration of cultural traits.
Focuses on fieldwork and participant observation to understand the unique history and context of each culture.
Strengths
1. Provides a framework for understanding how cultural traits spread. <br> 2. Allows for cross-cultural comparisons.
1. Provides a nuanced understanding of each culture. <br> 2. Encourages empirical research through fieldwork.
Weaknesses
1. May overlook the unique historical and environmental factors that shape each culture. <br> 2. Can be ethnocentric.
1. May ignore broader patterns and connections between cultures. <br> 2. Can be overly focused on individual societies.
Critics/Counterpoints
Criticized for focusing too much on material aspects and neglecting non-material aspects like religion, marriage, and kinship.
Criticized for ignoring the concepts of society and for not defining general laws governing human behavior and cultures.
✅3. Diffusionism and Historical Particularism (Summary)
Diffusionism and Historical Particularism
Introduction:
Diffusionism and Historical Particularism are responses to classical cultural evolution theories like unilineal evolution and psychic unity.
Diffusionism:
Aims to understand culture by studying the origin and spread of traits through interactions, trade, migration, etc.
Associated with British, German, and American schools.
Historical Particularism:
Proposes that culture is shaped by unique historical contexts and environments.
Franz Boas and his contemporaries advocated for this approach.
Diffusionism: Core Ideas
Introduction to Diffusionism:
Rejects unilineal evolution, emphasizes cultural traits' origins and transmission.
Innovations spread through direct or indirect diffusion, not invention.
Characteristics of Diffusionism:
Traits are adopted when meaningful/useful; transformation occurs due to geography.
Diffusion is more prevalent from developed to underdeveloped cultures.
Concepts Used by Diffusionists:
Trait, Complex, Cultural Area/Cultural Pattern define cultural elements' distribution.
British School of Diffusion:
Egypt-centered theory; culture spread from there to the world.
Smith, Perry, WHR Rivers contributed; focused on material aspects.
German School of Diffusion:
Cultural circles spread cultural traits concentrically.
Graebner, Schmitt; emphasized geography; didn't address all aspects.
American School of Diffusion:
Explained reasons for diffusion; transport, communication, imitation.
Clark Wissler introduced Cultural Area Approach; Kroeber added more.
Historical Particularism
Introduction:
Franz Boas pioneered Historical Particularism, emphasizing unique historical context.
Prominent Works:
Boas's books like 'The Central Eskimos' focused on cultural continuity.
HP Approach:
Every society's culture reflects its historical development, environment, psychology.
Rejects unilineal evolution, cultural parallels; focuses on fieldwork.
Boasian Approach to Anthropology:
Stressed empirical fieldwork, cultural relativism, uniqueness of cultures.
Culture and personality analyzed by his students like Margaret Mead.
Weaknesses of Boasian Approach:
Neglects society, biases inevitable, lacks general laws of behavior.
Comparison Between Historical Particularism & Diffusionism
Diffusionism vs. Historical Particularism:
Both emerged against classical evolution, unilineal theory, psychic unity.
Diffusionism studies spread of traits; HP emphasizes unique history.
Associated with various schools; Franz Boas prominent for HP.
Strengths & Weaknesses:
Diffusionism provides cross-cultural framework; may overlook history.
HP understands cultures in context; might focus too much on individual societies.
Comparison of Schools: British, German & American
Introduction:
Each school addresses diffusion differently; Boas's American school explains reasons.
Diffusionism & Historical Particularism:
British & German schools: Egypt-centered, material aspects, overlooked elements.
American school: Emphasized transport, communication, acculturation.
Conclusion:
All schools contributed to understanding cultural diffusion, but each had its limitations
✅4. Functionalism and Structural Functionalism
Functionalism by Malinowski
Introduction to Functionalism
Origins and Development of Functionalism
Emerged in the early 20th century as a reaction against evolutionism and diffusionism.
Gained prominence within the field of sociology.
Key Proponents of Functionalism in Sociology
Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim are pioneering figures.
They drew parallels between the human body and societal structures, emphasising how various components work in tandem.
Key Concepts of Functionalism
Societal structure and functioning are determined by various interrelated elements.
For society to function healthily, all elements must operate together.
In analogy: just as all organs in the human body work together for optimal health, various systems and cultural traits in society interact to form a functional community.
Diversity within Functionalism
Different cultural traits and institutions might function in diverse ways, but they are interdependent and interconnected.
Functionalism in Anthropology
Bronislaw Malinowski introduced the functionalism approach to anthropology during his work with the Trobriand Islanders.
His perspective on functionalism is often labeled as "bio-cultural" or "bio-social" functionalism.
This was later followed by Radcliffe-Brown's "structural functionalism" approach.
Basic Premise / Tenets / Postulates of Functionalism
Culture
An integrated whole with numerous traits.
Composed of various features, characters, and traits.
Functionalist Perspective
Believes that elements of culture have specific associated functions.
Not all elements have only one function.
Elements of culture can have:
Main functions
Additional functions which are essential for a functional society.
If any cultural element is problematic, it can disrupt the healthy functioning of the entire society.
Institutions in Society
Malinowski's structure:
Charter
A statement hinting at an institution's existence.
Example: Among the Todas, there's a polygamous marriage pattern.
Norms
Standards of behavior within a social unit.
Example: In Toda polygamous marriages, it's mainly one husband with multiple wives.
Personal
Refers to the people who follow a particular norm.
Example: The Toda people who follow the polygamy norm.
Material Apparatus
Includes ideas, value systems, and beliefs.
Example: The reasoning behind why polygamy is required for the Todas.
Activities
Refers to events or the range of actual behavior.
Example: Most Todas follow polygamy.
Functional Outcome
Refers to acceptance by the larger society and the eventual final form of activities
Biocultural Functionalism by Malinowski
Background
Polish scholar originally of physics and mathematics.
Later studied philosophy and then shifted to anthropology at the London School of Economics.
Fieldwork and Notable Studies
Conducted a significant study on the Trobriand Islanders of Papua New Guinea through participant observation.
Prominent Books
'Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922)'
'A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays'
'Dynamics of Cultural Change'
Key Concepts
Institutions in society play unique yet interconnected roles.
Though institutions function as separate entities, they're interrelated and interdependent.
They satisfy both individual needs and societal needs at large.
Malinowski likened society to a working engine:
Both require various functional components.
If one component fails, the system breaks down.
Functional View of Culture
Every aspect of a civilization (custom, object, idea, belief) fulfills a vital function.
Each is an indispensable part of the larger whole.
Analysis of Theory of “Needs by Malinowski”
Overview
According to Malinowski, culture satisfies various needs of society including biological, social, emotional, and psychological. He posited that the emergence of institutions serves to fulfil the needs of individuals
Categories of Needs
Primary (Basic) Needs
These pertain to the demands of the body and biological makeup
Cultural institutions emerge to fulfil these needs
Examples: In extreme winter temperatures, the body requires shelter and woollen clothes. Other basic needs include nutrition, energy, water, and sexual gratification
Secondary (Instrumental) Needs
Four significant types of needs associated with Malinowski's theory are fulfilled by various socio-cultural institutions.
Economic
Educational
Political (To maintain law and order)
Social control
Integrated (Synthetic) Needs
These needs ask people to connect and cooperate with each other, focusing on connective, cooperative, and coherence needs.
Examples: Emotions of collective unity represented by religious systems, festivals, and ceremonial activities. The concept of "har ghar tiranga" resonates with this category
Merits of Malinowski's Theory
Malinowski practiced participatory observation.
Effective study of institutions.
The theory is centered around the concept of needs.
It offers a logical reasoning for the evolution of institutions based on emerging needs, shedding light on the process of cultural change
Malinowski sought to bridge the gaps between evolutionary and diffusionist approaches
Limitations of Malinowski's Theory
Doesn't adequately address social changes that occur over short periods due to cultural blending through processes like diffusion and acculturation
Functionalists like Malinowski proposed that only functional cultural traits survive while non-functional ones become extinct.
However, there are observed exceptions where a cultural element survives without serving a specific need
The theory overlooks environmental factors influencing society, culture, and social change.
Structural Functionalism by Radcliffe Brown
Introduction to Structural Functionalism by Radcliff Brown (1881-1955)
Background
British anthropologist.
A student of WHR Rivers.
Rivers sent him to study the Andaman islanders.
Published the book "Andaman Islanders" in 1922.
Works and Contributions:
"Structure and Function of Primitive Society.", 1922
Although Brown never labeled himself a functionalist, his writings leaned towards functionalism.
Views and Opinions
Disagreed with the emphasis on culture and cultural institutions as primary (which was a fundamental concept for Malinowski). For Brown, these were superficial or secondary.
Believed that the social structure forms the basis of society.
Note : Social Structure Incorporates within it, the elements of Culture and Social Institutions
Culture and social function derive from the broader base of this socialstructure
The social structure encompasses elements of culture and cultural institutions.
Example of a Social Structure would be Marriage, which could be either Monogamy or Polygamy
Where as Cultural Institutions Example would be the Broader Functions of Society like Peace, Tolerance etc
Aimed to elevate social anthropology to a status like the natural sciences.
Advocated for empirical frameworks (laws/rules/regulations) for understanding social structures and institutions
Theory:
Merged the concepts of social structure and social function.
Thus, Resulted in the theory of "Structural Functionalism."
Three Aspects of Social Systems by Brown
Aspect
Description
Real-life Example
Structural Aspect
Arrangements in cultural systems forming functional units.
In traditional societies, roles are based on age, gender, and status. E.g., grandparents pass down traditions, parents provide, and children learn and help.
Ecological Aspect
Methods a society uses to adapt to its environment and the impact of environmental changes on society.
Indigenous people of the Amazon adapt by hunting, fishing, and gathering. Deforestation and climate change force them to adapt or relocate.
Socialization and Enculturation Aspect
Methods for individuals to acquire habits and integrate into society.
In Japan, "hanami" (flower viewing) is a tradition where people gather under cherry blossoms. Children are socialized into this practice, connecting them to their cultural heritage and society.
Structural Aspect:
Various arrangements within cultural systems where different parts/structures make up a functional unit.
Example: In many traditional societies, there are clear roles and responsibilities based on age, gender, and social status. For instance, in a typical family structure, grandparents might be responsible for passing down traditions and stories, parents for providing and making decisions, and children for learning and helping with chores. Each member has a distinct role, and together they form a functional unit.
Ecological Aspect:
Different methods through which a society adapts to its local environment.
How environmental changes can lead to social change.
Example: The indigenous people of the Amazon rainforest have adapted to their environment by developing skills for hunting, fishing, and gathering in the dense forest. Their homes, made of materials sourced from the forest, are elevated to protect against flooding. However, deforestation and climate change threaten their way of life, leading to social changes as they are forced to adapt or relocate.
Socialisation and Enculturation Aspect:
Methods through which individuals of a society acquire certain habits.
How individuals become a part of the larger society and effectively participate in social life.
According to Brown, society is like a living being made up of various organs and organ systems working together.
Social function is derived on the broader base of social structure.
Example: In Japan, the practice of "hanami" (flower viewing) is a cultural tradition where people gather under blooming cherry blossom trees to celebrate the transient beauty of flowers. From a young age, children are socialized into this practice by participating in picnics and festivals with their families. This tradition helps individuals feel connected to their cultural heritage and the larger Japanese society.
Social Structure by Brown
Premise
Holistic Evolution: Evolution is an integrated whole, where every component is interconnected.
Dual Functionality: Each element of culture possesses:
A primary (specific) function.
A secondary (additional) function.
Societal Cohesion: The combination of these specific and additional functions ensures the smooth functioning of a society.
Vulnerability: Any disruption or problem with a single element can jeopardize the healthy functioning of the entire society.
Types of Social Structure by Radcliff Brown:
Actual Social Structure:
Refers to the relationships of individuals and various social groups.
These relationships are continuously changing due to factors like migration, marriage, death, divorce, etc
Example of Actual Social Structure:
Various social structures have their own roles. For instance, within these changing relationships, roles can be seen such as husband-wife, father-daughter, mother-son, etc.
General Social Structure:
These are relatively constant social structures
They remain irrespective of the changes in the actual social structure.
Examples include village, institution of marriage, etc.
Example of General Social Structure
Members in these constant social structures can be arranged in different social classes or positions
For example, in the caste system of Indian society, relationships can be based on belonging to the same or different castes.
Example of Both Actual & General Strcuture
Dyadic relationships also exist, such as person-to-person relations (teacher-student, doctor-patient, master-servant, etc.).
Basic Postulates of Structural Functionalism by Brown
Core Concepts
Social Morphology
Analyzes the similarities and differences in structural systems across societies.
Physiology
Explores the functioning of the social structure.
Influenced by factors such as religion, law, ethics, and government.
Evolution
Focuses on changes within the social structure and related events.
These changes can arise from both evolution and diffusion.
Central Arguments
Societal Needs
Societies, akin to organisms, possess inherent needs.
Alterations in these needs influence culture and institutions on a broader scale, which subsequently impacts individuals on a granular level.
Functionality of Social Structure
Every segment of the social structure plays a pivotal role in ensuring a functional society.
For instance, gatherings among the Andaman islanders are not solely for activities but also to bolster social ties, foster unity, and enhance integration.
Objective of Structural Studies
The primary goal should be to delineate governing laws and regulations for socio-structural components.
Brown critiqued Franz Boas for his belief that identifying such laws was futile.
Criticism to Brown’s Approach
Causality of Functioning:
Brown posits that society functions to survive, yet it must also survive to function
Lack of Explanation for Social Structures:
Brown did not clarify why social structures and institutions emerged and continue to exist.
Inadequacy in Addressing Abrupt Changes:
The structural functional theory does not account for sudden shifts in social structure due to factors like disease, war, and migration.
Contradictions in Structural Fusionism:
Initially emerged as anti-diffusionist and anti-evolutionist, but later incorporated diffusion and evolution as reasons for social change.
Focus on Broader Structures:
Brown emphasized the broader structures of society influencing micro-level changes.
However, Malinowski argued that changes at the micro-level or individual-based changes can also influence broader societal structures.
For instance, the Indian national movement underwent significant transformation due to micro-level influences.
Over All Comparison
Comparison Between Malinowski & Brown (on Content)
Parameters of Comparison
Malinowski
Brown
View on Societal Needs
Society, like organisms, has needs. Changes in societal needs impact culture and institutions.
Functioning of every part of the social structure contributes to a functioning society.
Impact Level
Changes in society trickle down to impact individuals at the microlevel.
Functions are embedded within the underlying social structure.
Emphasis
Individual needs leading to changes in social institutions.
Structural functionalism; gatherings aim to maintain social solidarity, promote cohesiveness, and ensure integration.
Example
-
Andaman islanders gather for feasting, dancing, and ceremonies. The purpose extends beyond food, dance, or celebration.
Approach to Structural Studies
-
Focus on governing laws, rules, and regulations for socio-structural elements.
Critique of Others
-
Critiqued Franz Boas, especially his approach to socio-cultural anthropology research. Boas believed finding laws related to socio-cultural elements was unproductive.
Essential Elements for Anthropological Research
-
1. Discovery of Laws. 2. Reliability and Validity. 3. Cultural comparison to derive scientific laws and understand the direction of change.
Comparison between Malinowski & Brown
Malinowski:
Maintained that society, like organisms, has needs.
These societal needs change culture and institutions on a larger scale.
Changes in society trickle down to impact individuals at the microlevel.
Emphasised that individual needs can lead to changes in social institutions, affecting the broader framework and overall functioning of society.
Brown:
Argued that the functioning of every part of the social structure contributes to a functioning society.
Stressed that these functions are embedded within the underlying social structure.
Cited the Andaman islanders as an example of structural functionalism:
Islanders gather for feasting, dancing, and ceremonies.
The purpose extends beyond food, dance, or celebration.
The gatherings aim to maintain social solidarity, promote cohesiveness, and ensure integration.
Advocated that structural studies should focus on:
Governing laws, rules, and regulations for socio-structural elements.
Critiqued Franz Boas, especially his approach to socio-cultural anthropology research.
Boas believed finding laws related to socio-cultural elements was unproductive.
Outlined three essential elements for good anthropological research:
Discovery of Laws.
Reliability and Validity.
Cultural comparison to derive scientific laws and understand the direction of change.
Comparison Between Malinowski & Brown (in General)
Criteria
Malinowski (Functionalism)
Radcliffe-Brown (Structural Functionalism)
Introduction
- Introduced functionalism to anthropology during work with the Trobriand Islanders.
- Perspective labeled as "bio-cultural" or "bio-social" functionalism.
- British anthropologist
- Published "Andaman Islanders" in 1922.
Origins & Development
- Emerged in the early 20th century against evolutionism and diffusionism
- Gained prominence in sociology.
- Did not label himself a functionalist but leaned towards it
- Elevated social anthropology to a status like natural sciences.
Key Proponents
- Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim.
- Himself and his students.
Key Concepts
- Societal structure and functioning determined by interrelated elements
- All elements must operate together for society to function healthily.
- Social structure forms the basis of society
- Social function derived from the broader base of social structure.
Diversity
- Different cultural traits and institutions function in diverse ways but are interconnected.
- Emphasised on the holistic evolution of society.
Fieldwork & Studies
- Significant study on the Trobriand Islanders of Papua New Guinea.
- Studied the Andaman islanders.
Prominent Books
- 'Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922)'
- 'A Scientific Theory of Culture and Other Essays'
- 'Dynamics of Cultural Change'
- "Andaman Islanders" (1922)
- "Structure and Function of Primitive Society."
Theory
- Institutions in society play unique yet interconnected roles
- Society likened to a working engine.
- Merged concepts of social structure and social function, resulting in "Structural Functionalism."
Analysis of Theory
- Culture satisfies various needs including biological, social, emotional, and psychological
- Emergence of institutions serves to fulfill the needs of individuals.
- Holistic Evolution: Evolution is an integrated whole
- Dual Functionality: Each element of culture has primary and secondary functions.
Merits & Limitations
Merits:
- Practiced participatory observation
- Effective study of institutions
- Centered around the concept of needs. Limitations:
- Doesn't address short-term social changes
- Overlooks environmental factors.
- Elevated social anthropology to a status like natural sciences
- Focused on empirical frameworks.
✅4. Functionalism and Structural Functionalism (Summary)
Topic
Sub-Topic
Details
Functionalism by Malinowski
Introduction to Functionalism
- Emerged in the early 20th century against evolutionism and diffusionism. <br> - Gained prominence in sociology.
ㅤ
Key Proponents
- Herbert Spencer and Emile Durkheim.
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Key Concepts
- Society's structure and function are determined by interrelated elements. <br> - All societal elements must operate harmoniously.
ㅤ
Functionalism in Anthropology
- Introduced by Malinowski during his work with the Trobriand Islanders. <br> - Known as "bio-cultural" or "bio-social" functionalism.
ㅤ
Biocultural Functionalism by Malinowski
- Institutions in society play interconnected roles. <br> - Society likened to a working engine.
ㅤ
Analysis of Theory of “Needs by Malinowski”
- Culture satisfies various societal needs. <br> - Institutions emerge to fulfill individual needs.
Structural Functionalism by Radcliffe Brown
Introduction
- British anthropologist Radcliffe Brown. <br> - Published "Andaman Islanders" in 1922.
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Views and Opinions
- Emphasized the importance of social structure. <br> - Aimed to elevate social anthropology to a status like natural sciences.
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Three Aspects of Social Systems by Brown
- Structural Aspect: Arrangements in cultural systems. <br> - Ecological Aspect: Society's adaptation methods to its environment. <br> - Socialization and Enculturation Aspect: Methods for individuals to integrate into society.
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Social Structure by Brown
- Holistic Evolution: Evolution is an integrated whole. <br> - Dual Functionality: Each cultural element has primary and secondary functions.
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Basic Postulates of Structural Functionalism by Brown
- Social Morphology: Analyzes structural systems across societies. <br> - Physiology: Explores the functioning of the social structure. <br> - Evolution: Focuses on changes within the social structure.
Comparison Between Malinowski & Brown
Malinowski (Functionalism)
- Introduced functionalism to anthropology. <br> - Emphasized individual needs leading to changes in social institutions.
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Radcliffe-Brown (Structural Functionalism)
- Elevated social anthropology to a status like natural sciences. <br> - Focused on the holistic evolution of society.
This table provides a structured overview of the notes on Functionalism and Structural Functionalism.
✅5. Structuralism
Introduction to Structuralism
emerged in 1930s but flourished after 1940s
Prominent Anthropologists
Claud Levi Strauss
Edmund Leach
Concept initially emerged in sociology and linguistics then in anthropology.
Anthropological Structuralism concept is guided by “Gestalt Psychology”
Background
Structuralism in anthropology is predominantly influenced by structuralism of
linguistics and sociology
the very concept of structuralism is guided by Gestalt Psychology. The basic theme is that human mind thinking, perceptions, behaviour etc are a common unit and all human conscious experience is a pattern based on this common unit
Human mind tends to perceive small things, objects or characters as a part of greater complex
Prominent linguist De-Saussure developed structuralism in linguistics within argument that all the languages are constructed with certain hidden rules which the practitioners might know and use but are unable to articulate, i.e we can speak/write in a language but not able to articulate its grammar
Introduction
Structuralism in anthropology was introduced by Lewis Strauss
The basic theme behind this theory is the search of underlying pattern of thought behind all forms of human activities i.e even the smaller elements present in a culture should be understood in detail and also the relationships to the larger structures
(Idea behind structuralism = more focusing on why aspects-let’s find out the basis behind the things)
Social reality, culture ,institution ,objects etc cannot be studied and understood in isolation. They have to be seen in larger context as a part of the border structure .i.e why the name structuralism
Also these elements of culture are decided by different cultures in different ways and within the same culture also different elements can have different meanings based on time and positions
Books by Lewis Strauss
the elementary structure of kinship
structural anthropology
The Savage Mind
Structuralism
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Homologues
Different in functions but structure is similar
Example : flippers of whale show divergent evolutions
Analogous
Similar in function but structure is different
wings of butterflies-shows convergent evolutions
Structuralism
structuralism in anthropology is the search for the underlying pattern of thought in all forms of
human activities
social reality
materialistic things
culture institutions
They cannot be studied and understood in isolation, They have to be seen in larger context as a part of the broader social structure part. i.e why the name structuralism
Human thought process in the words of Lewis Strauss is not deterministic of culture but is operated within the larger culture.
He argued that like languages kinship, marriage and other manifestations of culture. Culture is a part of broader structural unit and hence should not be studied in isolation
Language and culture are homologues, analogues and as well as structural
Three Fundamental Characteristics of Human Mind
The Three Fundamental Characteristics Are
human follow rules
reciprocity is the simplest way to create social relations & awareness
Gifts binds both the giver and recipient in a continuous and long relationship
Concept of Binary Opposition by Lewi Strauss
The structure of human thought process is matching in max. human
cultures and this mental framework exist in binary opposition
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Binary Opposition - Proposed as a methodological tool for discovering hidden rules and regulations
It is the duty of the anthropologist to excavate these hidden rules and regulations
Strauss argued that binary opposition Is reflected in various cultural institutions like -kinship, myth, religion etc which may vary from society to society
Example :
marriage can be monogamous/polygamous
Institution can be democracy/dictatorship
Religion can be Polytheism/monotheism
Sex can be male/female
Decision can be decisive/indecisive etc.
Even within one cultural setup a particular norm or institutions can have different meaning based on situation
For Example : Shoes are good when worn outside but not when put on the table so it is the role of structural anthropologists to understand rules to interpret culture
Concept of Incest taboo by Lewis Strauss
In "Elementary Structure of Kinship," Lewis St. emphasizes the empirical establishment of the incest taboo, found universally across societies.
Varies in forms across different societies/cultures.
Pertains to sexual relations among close relatives like siblings, parents/children.
Incest taboo linked to exchange of women, establishing marriage rules.
Incest taboo holds significance as per Lewis St. due to its logical role.
Prohibition of incest gives rise to "sister exchange" between distinct groups.
which in turn leads to formation of new economic and political ties
According to Lewis St.
If a society or a institution is a fact, then incest taboo is a pre social fact
Concept of Alliance Theory by Lewis Strauss
Content: "The Elementary Structure of Kinship" and Incest Taboo
Source: Highlighted in the book "The Elementary Structure of Kinship"
Context: Reaction against Brown's kinship views (Brown's descent theory)
Basis: Transmission of Property, Obligations, Rituals, etc.
Transmission: Through father's/mother's line or both
Purpose: Generation-to-generation transfer fosters solidarity among members
Lewis Henry Morgan's Perspective
Foundation: Incest taboo as basis of theory
Incest Taboo: Prohibits marriage with one's sister/daughter
Result: People married women from other groups
This brought marriage to “Centre Stage”
Marriage's Central Role and Function
Shifted Focus: Marriage brought to forefront
Function: Develop relations and ties between different groups
Within Same Group: Marriage led to development of social institutions (e.g., family, kinship)
Social Groups: Wife-takers and Wife-givers
So various social groups are either wife takers or wife givers thus participating in system of sister exchange
Result: Creation of federation between groups
Further Developments: Subsequent growth of political and economic ties
Concept of Models by Lewis Strauss
Lewis Strauss decoded these models primarily for kinships but with broader perspectives on social facts.
In the words of Strauss, any structure within a larger socio-cultural system functions as a model that meets specific criteria and displays certain expected characteristics of the society.
These characteristics essentially become societal models.
Different Types of Models
Mechanical
Here the Elements and Sub Systems are on the Same Scale
Example : Kinship Pattern of Primitive Society. These patterns were guided by specific principles and were adhered to by the majority of the population
Statistical
Statistical models encompass elements and subsystems not operating on the same scale but coexisting within defined borders
Example : Kinship Pattern in Modern Society
MoEITY Systems
In his kinship research, Lewis Strauss elaborated on MOIETY SYSTEMS
Strauss reflected on the prevailing binary opposition between two social groups
Each of these two divided social groups can serve as the foundation for kinship systems.
Concept of Myth (Structural Analysis) by Lewis Strauss
To Justify that, Languages and culture are structured, He argued that
He argued that the meaning of a myth or mythology cannot be understood solely based on surface characteristics. A deeper study of the myth's context and its followers' perspectives is required. It should be studied at a deeper level in context of mind of follower
A structural anthropologist must analyse the myth's content, reasons, and component units i.e mythemes
Mythemes are not isolated; they are bundles of relations working together. Similar to language, a myth can be broken down into component units to comprehend their interrelations.
Giving the example of the Oedipus myth, he emphasised that identifying mythemes and understanding their interactions can justify the existence of myths. He employed psychoanalysis, drawing from Freud's theories, to uncover hidden agendas and reasons.
Strauss studied hundreds of myths from various cultures and countries. His aim was to demonstrate that underlying structures of myths share similar characteristics, implying homology.
Strauss maintained that if the structural elements or mythemes within a myth remain indecipherable, the myth will not persist over time.
Conclusion
Mythological Analysis by Strauss stands as one of the most empirical and detailed explorations of myths as a scientific system.
His extensive studies on myths were consolidated into a four-volume methodology book called “Mythologique”
Note: Discussion of aspects of Lewis' theory on totemism to be connected with religion.
Introduction to Edmund Leach
Place: Studied Kachin Province of Kachin, Burma.
Book: "Political Systems of Highland Burma: The Kachin Study, The Kachin Social Structure."
Leach identified two contrasting types of political organizations in the villages of Kachin province, alternating historically between egalitarian systems and hierarchical modes.
Gumloa/Gumlau: Political entity encompassing entire villages or clusters of villages with ideals of democracy and egalitarianism.
Gumsa: Based on hierarchical modes with elements of nepotism.
The social system studied in Highland Burma by Leach and associates was represented with inconsistency in individuals' minds, which they faced under all modes of political systems.
These two political systems lead to alternative modes of action, supporting the binary opposition of Strauss. Hence, structural analysis is required.
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Explanation of Last Two Point
In the areas of Highland Burma that Edmund Leach studied, the way people interacted and organized themselves in society was a bit confusing. People had different thoughts and behaviors depending on the kind of political system they were living under. This inconsistency in how they acted and thought made things complicated.
Because of these different ways people behaved under various political systems, they ended up making different choices. This idea of people making different choices supports the thinking of another scholar named Strauss. So, to really understand why people acted the way they did, it's important to analyze the structure of society, like how different parts fit together.
Edmund Leach and Traffic Signals
This Concept draws an analogy between the functioning of traffic signals and the way the human mind processes information and forms binary oppositions. Here's a breakdown of the concept:
Traffic Lights and Colors: In traditional traffic signals, red is used to indicate "stop," green signals "go," and later, yellow was added as an intermediary color between green and red, serving as a warning to slow down before the light turns red.
Binary Opposition and Continuum: Edmund Leach's idea suggests that the human mind tends to categorize and understand the world by creating binary oppositions even from continuous spectrums. In this context, a continuum refers to a range of possibilities or states without clear-cut boundaries. Binary opposition means the division of concepts into two distinct and contrasting categories.
Extremes and Logical Center: Leach proposed that the human mind forms binary oppositions by using the extremes of a spectrum as reference points. These extremes are used to build the oppositional categories, and between them lies a logical or conceptual center that mediates between the two extremes. In the case of traffic signals, red and green represent the extreme thoughts or concepts, and the logical center is occupied by the yellow signal.
Color Symbolism: Leach extends this analogy to the world of thoughts and ideas. Red and green are considered extreme ways of thinking or viewpoints. Red might symbolize caution, danger, or negativity, while green might represent positivity, action, or affirmation. The addition of yellow as an intermediate approach suggests a balanced perspective, indicating a need to slow down, be cautious, and find a middle ground between the extreme viewpoints represented by red and green.
In summary, the concept uses the example of traffic signals and their colors to illustrate how the human mind simplifies complex continua into binary oppositions. The extremes of the continuum are used to create opposing categories, while an intermediary position represents a balanced and nuanced perspective. This analogy reflects how our cognitive processes tend to categorize and understand the world through simplified dichotomies, even when reality is more complex and continuous.
Criticism of Structuralism
Structuralism focused on static reality of human psyche, not accounting for variations in different conditions or even within the same individual.
Overemphasis on incest taboo and marriage as determinants of socio-cultural institutions.
Lack of scientific basis for myths and their components, as suggested by Strauss.
Ignored technological, environmental, and economic reasons for society's existence and subsequent social change.
Failed to consider dynamic aspects of culture, unable to explain cultural variations.
Questioned why one custom maintains structure while another doesn't.
Conclusion of Structuralism
Enriched anthropology but supported evolutionist and diffusionist views.
✅5. Summary of Edmund Leach & Lewis Strauss
Topic
Explanation
Structuralism in Anthropology
Emerged in 1930s as a significant theory. Prominent anthropologists like Claude Levi Strauss and Edmund Leach played key roles. It originated in sociology and linguistics, later applied to anthropology. Anthropological Structuralism is rooted in "Gestalt Psychology," which emphasizes understanding relationships between parts within a larger whole.
Background
Inspired by linguistics and sociology. Guided by Gestalt Psychology: mind perceives parts as integrated wholes. De-Saussure's linguistic structuralism laid the foundation by suggesting that languages are constructed with hidden rules.
Lewis Strauss and Structuralism
Lewis Strauss introduced structuralism to anthropology. His focus was on uncovering underlying patterns that govern human activities and behaviors. Structuralists emphasized studying elements of culture in broader social context, as interpretations can vary across different societies. The interpretation and meaning of cultural elements may differ within the same society, giving rise to different perspectives.
Three Fundamental Characteristics of Human Mind
Humans tend to follow established rules in their thoughts and actions. Reciprocity, or mutual exchange, forms the simplest basis for creating social relations and increasing awareness among individuals. Gifts, which create a sense of obligation, connect the giver and recipient in enduring relationships.
Concept of Binary Opposition
Binary opposition refers to the idea that human thought often organizes concepts into pairs of opposites. Anthropologists seek to uncover these hidden rules that structure human thought. Binary opposition is evident in various cultural institutions, highlighting the way societies classify and understand elements.
Concept of Incest Taboo
Strauss empirically established the existence of the incest taboo, a prohibition against sexual relations between close relatives, across various societies. This taboo takes different forms in different cultures but consistently pertains to relations like siblings and parents/children. The incest taboo is linked to the exchange of women, which in turn influences the establishment of rules for marriage. Strauss argued that the incest taboo's logical role contributes to the formation of new relationships, like sister exchange, which leads to economic and political connections.
Concept of Alliance Theory
Strauss developed his alliance theory as a reaction to Brown's views on kinship. This theory is centered around the transmission of property, obligations, rituals, and more, often through marriage. Strauss connected the alliance theory to the concept of incest taboo, suggesting that prohibitions against certain forms of marriage lead people to marry from other groups, fostering inter-group relations. Marriage plays a central role in forming relationships and ties between different groups within a society.
Concept of Models
Strauss introduced the concept of models to understand kinship and broader societal patterns. He proposed two types of models: Mechanical models where elements and subsystems operate on the same scale, like kinship patterns in primitive societies, and Statistical models where elements and subsystems coexist without operating on the same scale, seen in kinship patterns of modern societies.
Concept of Myth (Structural Analysis)
Strauss emphasized that understanding mythologies requires delving deeper than surface characteristics. He introduced the concept of "mythemes," the smallest units of myth that work together to convey meaning. Mythemes are analogous to linguistic elements and can be analyzed for their interrelations. Strauss employed psychoanalysis, including Freud's theories, to uncover hidden agendas and reasons behind myths. He argued that if the structural elements or mythemes within a myth remain indecipherable, the myth would not persist over time.
Edmund Leach and Political Systems
Edmund Leach conducted a study in the Kachin province of Burma, identifying two contrasting political systems. Gumloa (egalitarian) encompassed entire villages or clusters with ideals of democracy and equality, while Gumsa (hierarchical) was based on hierarchical modes, sometimes showing elements of nepotism. Leach found inconsistency in individuals' understanding of the social system, necessitating structural analysis.
Edmund Leach and Traffic Signals
Leach drew an analogy between traffic signals and the human thought process of binary opposition. He suggested that the human mind tends to categorize the world through binary opposition, even when dealing with continuous spectrums. Leach used the analogy to explain that extremes in thought serve as reference points, while the logical center mediates between them. Just as traffic signals simplify complex traffic situations, the human mind simplifies complex concepts through binary opposition.
Criticisms of Structuralism
Structuralism was criticized for focusing on a static view of reality, neglecting variations across different conditions and individuals. Some scholars argued that structuralism placed excessive importance on the incest taboo and marriage as determinants of socio-cultural institutions. There were doubts about the scientific basis of myths and their components. Structuralism was criticized for overlooking technological, environmental, and economic factors that influence societal existence and change. It struggled to account for dynamic aspects of culture and cultural variations.
Conclusion of Structuralism
While enriching anthropology, structuralism also aligned with evolutionist views that might oversimplify the complexities of human societies and cultures.
Aspect
Edmund Leach
Claude Lévi-Strauss
Background
Trained as a social anthropologist and was known for his work in structural-functionalism.
Trained as an ethnologist and anthropologist, renowned for his contributions to structuralism and structural anthropology.
Significant Works
Authored "Political Systems of Highland Burma," emphasizing political systems and structure in Kachin society.
Known for works like "The Elementary Structures of Kinship" and "Structural Anthropology," laying the foundation for structuralism in anthropology.
Focus Area
Studied the Kachin people in the Kachin province of Burma, focusing on political systems and their structures.
Developed the concept of structuralism and applied it to various aspects of culture, including kinship, myths, and symbolism.
Contributions to Structuralism
Introduced the concept of "traffic signals and colors" to explain binary opposition in the human thought process.
Pioneered the idea of identifying underlying patterns in human societies, leading to the development of structural anthropology.
Key Concepts
Introduced the Gumloa and Gumsa political systems in the Kachin province, highlighting contradictions in social structures.
Developed the concept of binary opposition and explored how it shapes human thought and cultural institutions.
Approach to Myth
Analyzed myths through the lens of structural analysis, breaking them down into component mythemes to understand their underlying structures.
Explored mythologies as intricate systems, examining hidden meanings and symbols that convey underlying cultural concepts.
Criticisms and Debates
Some critics found Leach's emphasis on binary opposition overly simplistic and questioned the applicability of his ideas beyond specific contexts.
Lévi-Strauss faced criticism for potential oversimplification of cultures and structures, as well as not fully considering historical dynamics.
Legacy and Influence
Known for introducing a unique perspective on political structures and their contradictions, contributing to debates on structuralism.
Regarded as one of the founding figures of structuralism in anthropology, his ideas have had a profound impact on the field's methodology and interpretation of cultures.
Overall Impact
Contributed to the development of structuralist thought by applying it to political systems, adding complexity to the structuralist approach.
Left a lasting legacy by shaping the structuralist paradigm, which has influenced anthropological analysis and interpretation of cultural phenomena.
✅6. Cultural Materialism
Proponents
Important Proponents
Marvin Harris (American Anthropologist)
Most important Book by Harris
the rise in anthropological theory
cows, pigs, war, witches
the riddles of culture
Maxine Margolis (American Anthropologist)
Concept of Marxist Materialism
Marxist Materialism was of the argument that the materialistic base in the society governs the components of super structure
you can divide society into 2 different components
Materialistic Base
includes modes of production, technology, relations of production, labour force etc
b. Super Structure
super structure included all other socio culture intuitions like religion marriage, political system, law and order etc
This materialistic base governs the existence and changes in super structure
Marxist materialism was of the view that society came into being for production of material things only
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because man was aware that “man in association can produce more than man in isolation”
Cultural Materialism of Harris is based on 3 Different Schools of Thoughts
Marxist Materialism
Cultural Ecology
Cultural Evolution
Cultural Materialism emerged as an explanation of Marxist Materialism and later explained the cultural similarities and differences with associated cultural changes within a societal framework consisting of 3 levels - infrastructure, structure and super structure
The Three Levels Are
Infrastructure - Material Reality
Material realities like modes of production, technology, demographic parameters like birth rate death rate density of population etc
Broadly Marvin Harris divided infrastructure under 3 sub components
1.1 Production
1.2 Reproduction
1.3 Demography
Structure - Organisational Aspects
Political Systems, Law and Order, Government, Marriage, Family, Kinship, Class System, Caste System
Super Structure - Ideological & Symbolical aspects
Super structure - Religion, Science, Arts, Music, Sports, Literature.
Technological & Economic Aspect of Cultural Materialism
Cultural materialist believe that technological and economic aspects play a primary role in shaping a society i.e
infrastructure shaping structure and superstructure
In the words of Harris - Cultural Materialism strikes to operate a pan human science of society whose findings can be excepted on logical and evidentiary grounds by the pan human community
Also, all the non infrastructure aspects of society are created with the purpose of benefiting productive and reproductive capabilities of society
Example of Sacred Cow Myth - To Justify CM
He maintained that the taboo against cow consumption in Indian society, clearly demonstrates how infrastructure effects the structure and superstructure as
cow is used in agriculture for pulling the carts
Its manure is used as fertiliser
its dung is used as a fuel and milk
other dairy products are nutritious diet
For all these reasons people started protecting cows and the doctrine of Ahinsa towards the cows became part of the religion
Similar technologies applied in stabilised environment tend to produce similar arrangements in economic production
They will lead to generation of similar systems of society and culture and if environmental factors are changed economic production will be changed, technology used will be changed and different socio-culture factors will emerge
techno-economic determinism
when in the same environment using the same technology, it will lead to same modes of production. along with tech and economy, techno environment will also decides the tech people are going to use
Disintegration by USSR by Marvin Harris
Background
on disintegration of USSR and its state communism, Harris argued that the broad perception of the reason of disintegration being rising capitalism is a flawed notion
The collapse was basically due to
infrastructural devolution and disintegration of its components
in 1970’s and 1980’s output per unit of input declined continuous like leading to collapse of economic indicators
Factories, agricultural equipment’s inputs, energy plants etc were overburden and outdated
No rise in Agricultural Production
All these problems in infrastructure were compounded by subsequent impacts and problems in structure and superstructure creating a societal economic, political and administrative cause leading to disintegration of USSR
Changing US Workforce Demography of Women in USA
Maxine Margolis, an American anthropologist supported the cultural materialism by harris
she explained the participation of women in workforce and the overall role women played in post WW2 in United states
she empirically studied this phenomenon and interpreted her findings on the model of cultural materialism
Margolis found that women were entering the work force in large numbers. Ignoring the traditional role of restriction kitchen, kinds and family
It was the economic necessity that production should be increased at all levels i.e Agriculture, Industry or Services.
So the greater participation of women took place. also men who took part in the war were physically and mentality stressed so new entries in the work force was required
She further elaborated that as a broader notion the ideological movement of feminism was not actually responsible for entry of women in the work force rather it was demand of the infrastructure that determined and modified superstrata also leading to change in the ideology that women should be restricted to kitchen, kinds and family
Leslie Whites View of Cultural Materialism
Leslie white was supporter of ecological anthropology in capturing of energy as a measure to define the complexities of culture
She was also influenced by Marxian economic theory along with Darwin’s theory of
evolution
White proposed that culture is the product of energy and technology i.e cultural development and change are dependent upon energy efficiency and technological advancements
these arguments of him are directly correlated with materialist interpretation of culture
Criticism of Cultural Materialism
General Criticism
Entire culture cannot be purely scientific or dependent upon technological changes. This was biggest criticism of cultural materialist given by various anthropologists particularly post modernists like Derrida, Focault & Berret
Marxist Criticism
Marxist termed culture materialism of Harris as Vulgar Materialism because the imperial approach used by cultural materialist is too simple, straightforward & superficial
Structuralist Criticism
Structuralist criticised the materialist due to ignorance of EMIC perspective as the thoughts, believes, ideologies & behaviour etc of insiders are one of the key elements to study the society
Scope
this approach was restricted to limited no. of societies based on a few studies.
For Example : It is applicable to industrial societies but not valid for horticultural societies
Conclusion of Cultural Materialism
in the words of Harris modes of(ETIC) production and reproduction probably determined the (ETIC) domestic polity and economy which in turn (infrastructure to superstructure) probably determine the (EMIC) psychological
Leading to the behavioural and mental super structure, so the ETIC approach of infrastructure is leading to ETIC approach of structure and EMIC of super structure.
As per cultural materialism the driving force behind cultural change is satisfying the basic needs of production and reproduction. This school of thought was criticised by many earlier and subsequent anthropologist but it tried to connect the various elements of culture with the thread of modes of production and reproduction
✅6. Cultural Materialism (Summary)
Cultural Materialism Overview
Proponents
Marvin Harris (American Anthropologist)
Maxine Margolis (American Anthropologist)
Concept of Marxist Materialism
Materialistic base governs super structure
Society divided into:
Materialistic Base
Modes of production, technology, relations of production, labor force, etc.
Super Structure
Religion, marriage, political system, law, etc.
Materialistic base governs changes in super structure
Society exists for material production
Cultural Materialism of Harris
Based on 3 Schools of Thought
Marxist Materialism
Cultural Ecology
Cultural Evolution
Three Levels in Societal Framework
Infrastructure - Material Reality
Material realities like modes of production, technology, etc.
Structure - Organizational Aspects
Political systems, law, marriage, family, caste, etc.
Super Structure - Ideological & Symbolical Aspects
Techno-Environmental and Techno-Economic Determinism
Techno-environmental determinism
Tech in stable environment leads to similar arrangements
Techno-economic determinism
Same environment and tech lead to same production modes
Disintegration of USSR by Marvin Harris
Collapse due to infrastructural issues
Decline in output, outdated infrastructure
Problems in structure and superstructure compounded
Changing US Workforce Demography of Women
Maxine Margolis's study on women in workforce
Economic necessity led to women's participation
Infrastructure's demand shaped societal change
Leslie White's View of Cultural Materialism
Culture product of energy and technology
Dependent on energy efficiency and tech advancements
General Criticisms of Cultural Materialism
Culture not purely scientific or tech-dependent
Marxist, structuralist, and limited applicability criticism
Conclusion of Cultural Materialism
Infrastructure influences structure and superstructure
Cultural change driven by production and reproduction needs
Important Diagram: Cultural Materialism Framework
Shows the three levels: Infrastructure, Structure, Superstructure
✅7. Culture Personality School (CPS)
Introduction to CPS
Started by the Students of Franz Boas
i.e Ruth Benedict, Margret Mead
Supported by Kardiner, Linton, Core Du Bois
Integration of Psychology, Sociology, and Anthropology
Aimed to apply psychoanalysis in anthropological data
Theories suggest that personality is influenced by surrounding culture and society from childhood, impacting personality types
Socialisation and child-rearing practices contribute to personality development
Culture Personality Relationship
Culture and personality are intertwined.
Cultural practices are both expressions of and contributors to the cultural personality type (CPT) of a group's members
Culture shapes the CPT of individuals, and individuals shape culture
Characterisation of CPT
Describes character, personality, temperament of group members
Focuses on the interaction between culture and personality
Demonstrates interrelationships and overall impact between cultural elements and personality
Franz Boas' Influence
Franz Boas' earlier views laid the foundation for this school of thought
Boas argued that individual behavior and thinking can influence culture
Three Notions/Approaches by CPS
Personality shapes culture
Culture shapes personality
Both culture and personality influence each other, and they are inseparable
Impact of Personality on Culture by Ruth Benedict
Introduction
Book : Patterns of culture
Study : Culture Patterns
She studies Zunis, Kwakiutls and Dobus of
South West Stet of Maxico
North West Canada
Melanesia - Papua New Guinea & Fiji, Tuvalu, Kiribati & Solomon Island
She did not do any fieldwork, except limited number of visits to porcupines. Other studies based on culture pattern were based on secondary data
Concept of Culture Pattern
Benedict used the concept of Culture Pattern as the basis to define the central axis/access or soul, which was termed as special genius by her
in her PhD she explained culture pattern to concept of Guardian Spirit based on studies of North America. She observed that Americans always keep in mind the concept of Guardian Spirit holding behaviour pattern of group members. In simple words this is dominant or prevalent way of thinking as umbrella concept through which new practises can flourish
Concept of Culture Pattern is formed when cultural traits and complexes become related to each other and result into a functioning unit
Cultural Traits are smallest single element of culture. Example is Varna System of ancient Indian Society. These Elements when Organised around a common point of reference become a cultural complex like caste in Indian Society. Integration of these traits and complexes into a functioning unit becomes a culture pattern
In words of Benedict, Culture can be viewed as consisting of cultural or specific configuration under general master pattern ie culture around a basic theme
Integration of Culture is on basis of tendency of Special Genius or Soul or Central Axis of a Particular cultural element. Benedict maintains that there are 2 type of geniuses found in human society
Types of Geniuses
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Apollonian Pattern
Dionysian Approach
Characteristics
- Emphasises collectiveness, communion, harmony, peace, kindness, empathy, unity
- Priorities group cooperation over individualism
-Zuni people as an example, cooperative due to resource-rich regions, emotional bonds.
- Characterised by aggressiveness, individualism, extreme behavior, competition for resources
-Illustrated by Kwakiutls in the subarctic region of North America
Societal Traits
- Communal harmony
- Peaceful coexistence
- Kindness and empathy
- Unity among members
- Suppression of individualism
- Cooperative nature, emotional connections
In this version, I've reduced redundancy while maintaining the key points of comparison between girls of the US and Samoan Island.
In this format, the provided information is organised into a comparative table, highlighting the comparisons between girls in the US and Samoan Island based on culture's influence on personality.
Margret Mead investigated the relations between culture and personality through her fieldwork in Samoan islands. She compared the behaviour of Samoan and American Adolescent girls
Ultimate theme in study was that stresses related to puberty was not biologically determined with the onset of menstruation. They were rather culturally determined
With her study she showed that such stress was mainly associated with American girls whereas Samoan Adolescent Girls had relatively easy transition into sexual maturity
the entire cultural mood in Samoa was less emotional than that of America and hence the pre-marital sexual relations were considered common and normal while were taken seriously in US
Adolescence in Samoan girls was not attention ridden like that of America but was simply taken as a part of gradual development in life
Kids at Samoa are taught early in their life early in their life that they should get up early in the morning, play with other kids, should behave well, be obedient and only with these things they can have a good way of life
She opined that it is actually the culture that is shaping the personality of people at large, like the temperament of these adolescent girls
She supported the view of Ruth Benedict also, that individual personalities can also shape the culture but the impact of latter is more pronounced
Culture Influencing Personality : Sex and Temperament in Three Primitive Societies & Gender Personality
Introduction
Described in the book sex and temperament in 3 primitive societies. She tried to study impact of society, culture in broader domains on personality formation, particularly gender personalities on males and female
The study was to understand why societies living in the same area, differ in their character, personality & temperament. Despite living within one society the temperament of males and females differ
She studied 3 primitive tribes of Papua New Guinea, in pacific. She concluded that the individual personality of male and female, whether it is same or contrasting is an outcome of the cultural process
The Three Tribes Study
Arapesh
Lived in the geographical conditions almost free from attack of outsiders
There was no resource crunch
Hence, both males and females were gentle, nurturing, spending time with their child’s and families in a loving way.
There was a peaceful co-existence of society members
Both males and females were participating in all the activities so no gender based specified role; hence no gender discrimination
Mundugumor
While studying Mundugumor, Mead found that as the group was prone to attack from both outsiders as well as animals inside
The situation here was totally opposite to that of Arapesh
Both males and females are aggressive, competitive, jealous, violent and always in the attacking mood
both almost dislike the kids and frequently physically punish them
But still no specified gender roles were defined
Tschambuli
Mead witnessed that tschambuli society is totally opposite from the
modern US society
There were different gender roles & They were specified
One Gender was dominant, aggressive and was extremely influencing
while the other was submissive
Interestingly, It was the females who were aggressive, dominating and males were suppressed.
Males used to dressed up in freely cloths and also wore make up
Outside roles were mainly confined to females
Summary of Tribes Studied
Aspect
Arapesh
Mundugumor
Tschambuli
Geographical Conditions
Almost free from outsider attacks
Prone to attacks from outsiders and animals
Opposite of modern US society
Resource Availability
No resource crunch
-
-
Male-Female Behavior
Gentle, nurturing, family-oriented
Aggressive, competitive, violent
Gender roles specified
Parental Roles
Both genders participate in child-rearing
Both genders dislike kids, punish them
Females dominant, males submissive
Gender Roles
No gender-based role differentiation
No gender-based role differentiation
Gender roles specified
Clothing and Appearance
Not specified
Not specified
Males dressed freely, wore makeup
Social Hierarchy
Peaceful co-existence
Aggressive and competitive
Gender-based hierarchy
Interaction Between Genders
Harmonious co-existence
Aggressive interaction
Dominant females, submissive males
Outside Roles
Both genders participate
Not specified
Outside roles mainly with females
Conclusion
Margaret Mead's study of the Arapesh, Mundugumor, and Tschambuli tribes showcased how cultural processes strongly shape individuals' personalities, including their character, temperament, and especially their gender-specific personality development
The contrasting behaviours and roles within these societies emphasised the significant role culture plays in moulding human behavior and identity
Study of National Character by Margret Mead
National Character and Culture: An Anthropological Exploration
Introduction:
The concept of national character, initially proposed by Edward Sapir, further discussed by Ruth Benedict, and fully conceptualised and popularised by Margaret Mead in her study 'Keep Your Powder Dry: An Anthropologist Looks at America,'
PS : Powder Dry. Here is Gun Powder
It delves into the unique personality traits and distinctive lifestyles exhibited by the populations of specific nation-states.
National Character Defined:
In her comprehensive examination, Mead addressed the national character of America, taking a departure from exclusively adhering to the Culture and Personality Theory (CPT).
She argued that the study of national character could be effectively approached through the lens of culture and personality, since culture, developed and assimilated across generations, inevitably influences the collective identity of a group or nation, thus constituting what Mead termed as 'national character.'
Elements of National Character:
National character encompasses a historical continuum rich in traditions, changes across various dimensions, and the persistence of certain traits.
Mead's study focused primarily on the American national character, revealing intriguing parallels in the personalities of children across America, Japan, and Russia.
These resemblances suggest a commonality among earlier generations, with shifts occurring through factors such as familial systems, educational institutions, and the impact of broader societal elements.
Insights from Residing Populations:
Mead proposed an unconventional approach to understanding national character—studying the characteristics of foreign nationals residing within America.
This approach, often termed as the 'study of culture at a distance,' suggests that insights into the national character and culture of different countries can be gleaned without direct contact.
For instance, Mead highlighted the pronounced nationalistic outlook of the Japanese due to their cultural emphasis on collective well-being over individualistic pursuits.
Conclusion:
In conclusion, the broader national character emerges as a complex amalgamation of the values, behaviours, and influences inculcated within individuals through cultural interactions
Criticism:
This extends beyond the individual level, shaping the character of societies and nations at large. While the national character approach garnered critique for its potential applicability limited to homogeneous nations like Japan, its relevance and validity in more heterogeneous societies, such as America and India, remain subject to debate
Study of National Character by Margret Mead (Summary)
Introduction:
National character concept by Mead; originated from Edward Sapir, developed by Benedict.
Mead's study 'Keep Your Powder Dry' explores personality traits in nation-states.
"Powder Dry" metaphor for preparedness, hinting at cultural exploration.
National Character Defined:
Mead examines America's national character, diverges from Culture and Personality Theory (CPT).
Culture shapes collective identity; culture and personality intertwined.
Mead coins 'national character' term for culture-driven identity.
Elements of National Character:
Historical continuum with traditions, evolving traits, and persisting qualities.
Mead's study on American character; parallels in American, Japanese, Russian children.
Commonalities tied to familial, educational, societal influences.
Insights from Residing Populations:
Mead's novel approach: study foreign nationals within a country.
'Culture at a distance': studying traits indirectly.
Example: Japanese nationalistic outlook due to cultural emphasis on collectivism.
Conclusion:
National character is a blend of values, behaviours, and influences from cultural interactions.
Shapes not just individuals but also societies and nations.
Criticism:
National character criticised for limited applicability (e.g., Japan).
Relevance and validity debated in diverse societies like America and India.
Impact of “Culture on Personality” & “Personality on Culture”
Introduction - Kardiner, Linton & Cora Du Bois
Certainly, here's the information presented in a more readable format:
Aspect
Abraham Kardiner
Ralph Linton
Cora Du Bois
Background
Psychiatrist
Anthropologist
Anthropologist
Contributions
"Psychological Functions of Society"
Co-founder of basic personality types with Kardiner
Developed "Model Personality"
Study Name
Basic Personality Type
Total Personality Type
Model Personality
Notable Work
Explored psychological aspects of societies
Explored cultural influences on personality development
Emphasised holistic approach to understanding individuals within their cultural context
Works Done By Abraham Kardiner
Freud’s Influence on Kardiner & Kardiner's Proposition of BPT
Basic Personality Type (BPT) was explained by Kardiner in his theory of BPT which is a collection of fundamental personality traits shared by members of the society within a culture, in general
Kardiner was strongly influenced by psycho analysis of Freud and subsequent study ‘the future of an illusion’ highlighting the early life experiences of kids
Kardiner understood that the foundations of personality are being led in the early stages of childhood like-the child rearing practises and result into some common personality traits among members of society
Kardiner said that basic personality exists in the context of particular cultural institutions or is patterned in a specific way, kardiner divided the institutionalist aspects of culture in 2 categories - primary & secondary
Primary - responsible for forming basic personality structure having the older traditional and stable institutions although Kardiner did not mention about any list of primary institutions yet some examples can be the immediate family kinship, kinship ties the child rearing practises etc
Secondary - the religion, rituals, norms, law and order etc, emerging out of basic personality structure and will latter shape and influence the basic personality also
So, the basic personality type will lie somewhere between primary and secondary institutions
An Example to Understand BPT - Marquesian of French Polynesian Islandus
Kardiner’s concept of BPT can be understood better by going through the study of “Marquesian Islanders of French Polynesia”
The Case
Among these islanders periodic starvation constitutes one of the chief problem in social adaptation due to frequent drought like situations.
They have to deal with limited food supply and to reduce the burden on food resources, they started practising female infanticide to regulate the population.
Continuos infanticide practises led to disruptions of sex ratio upto the levels of 5:2, thus reducing the sexual opportunity to male. Hence, one female was shared as a partner to multiple male i.e practise of polygamy and specifically polyandry
These practises had an important impact on attitude and behaviour of marquesian families, especially on females.
Problem Faced by Women Are :
women’s face the problem of equitably devoting the time and attention to multiple husbands
she spends most of the time with her husbands, leading to MATERNAL NEGLECT OF CHILDREN
in the same way husbands also have to face female neglect
due to all these factors, there is an overall general frustration and hatred prevalent in the society
Effect of this Situation on Tribes Folklore
Marquesian folktales portray a women as wicked, heartless, exploiters & cannibals, seductress for young, Robbers of kids food
Conclusion
These things overall impact the individual personality as well as the cultural construct of the broader society
Structure of BPT by Abraham Kardiner
Acronym for BPT
I.E.S.I.S.A.
Id - India's
Ego - Ethos of
Superego - Spiritual
Ideal Constellations - Influencing
Security Systems - Societal
Attitude towards Supernatural Things and Beings - Aspirations
Component
Description
Key Points
Id
- Rooted in biological needs requiring immediate gratification
- Selfish and uncompromising feelings/needs<br>- Examples: food & sexual gratification
Ego
- Society members fulfil ID desires through socially accepted norms
- Useful actions to achieve ID desires
Superego
- Children adopt values from parents, education, and societal systems
- Develops conscience with values of right and wrong
Ideal Constellations
- Different ways of thinking based on broader social perceptions
- Guides acceptance of superego and fulfilling ID desires through ego
Security Systems
- Develop sentiments of security
- Positive/negative attitudes towards equality, cooperation, opportunities
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- Trust in broader societal system to take care of individual needs
ㅤ
Attitude towards Supernatural
- Techniques/tools for seeking aid from society
- Expresses relations with society
- Shows loyalty and gratitude towards social norms
💡
Conclusion
Kardiner maintained that BPT is the systematic arrangement of these components and their interplay acting as a guiding light to members to develop and adhere to basic personality type
Works Done By Ralph Linton
Introduction of Ralph Linton
He is the Co-founder of BPS with Kardiner
he gave new presentation of social + cultural + social → organisations
He analysed process of cultural change
He tried to established basic personality type of each culture ; for this he
did multiple and extensive studies
After studying cultural behaviour of different societies Linton noticed 3
types of behaviours
Three Types of Behaviours by Culture Are
Real culture
Actual behaviour of members of society which is learned and shared in particular situation, different individuals in different different situation have the different ways to responds. Its their actual behaviour or real culture
Ideal culture
It Is getting formed by philosophical or traditional element of culture. this behaviour is considered as ideal and members are expected to obey that irrespective of situation
Culture construct
Linton stated that there is a difference between
their behaviour and way of life of people &&
what an anthropologist studies and writes about them
both are different dimensions of culture so what an anthropologists is studying or writing is cultural construct and not the real culture
Total Personality Type by Ralph Linton
It is an extension of Kardiner's BPT. It is a collective presentation of basic and additional & Basic Personality
BPT - Basic Personality Type
It is formed due to influence of larger social and cultural
Example : family, friends & acquaintances
APT - Additional Personality Type
acquired through individual personal experience during life cycle
Stimulus Response Principle
Linton came up with a stimulus response principle that in order to satisfy certain specific needs like physical /psychological ones. Individual had to make certain specific responses to certain specific stimuli
Conclusion
Linton considered multiple factors affecting personality of individual like environmental factors, genetic factors & cultural factors
In the words of Linton in a society all the individual undergo similar type of socialisation, customs & tradition. Hence maximum people acquire same set of habits i.e The Basic Personality Type of that society with experiences contributing to additional personality
Works Done by Cora Du Bois
Modal Personality Type by Cora Du Bois
Introduction to Cora Du Bois
She was highly influenced by Kardiner and Linton
She used one of the most scientific approach to understand individual personality in society
She extended BPT of Kardiner through her Concept of Modal Personality. It was based on more empirical data, scientific approach and scientific
test of individuals
She Employed Two Tests for the Same
IBT → Ink Blot Test
Its a Projective psychological test to measure thought disorder for the purpose of identifying mental illness. test is based on inkblot card
TAT → Thematic Appreciation Test
Its a Projective psychological test to understand mental condition based on describing the ambitious senses or pictures so also termed as picture interpretation test
💡
Modal Personality Type of Cora du Bois is BPT of Kardiner.
Itis expressed most frequently in behaviour of individuals in society.
It is similar to finding out mode in statistical data
Field Work
She modified BPT of Kardiner and TPT of Linton based on her field work
in Allure Island of East India in Indonesian Region
Presenting MPT
She collected both anthropological and psychological. Thus, presented modal personality type based on interplay between culture and personality which is in addition to BPT of kardiner where variation in BPT of culture were totally ignored
Findings of Field Work
In her article ‘’the people of Allure : a social, psychological study of east
Indian Island‘’. She explained the interplay of culture and personality
Both male and female were suspicious, antagonistic and violent towards
each other
There was frequent outburst of emotion like jealousy & disintegration in the surrounding
They didn’t show much of the interest in nearby activities
Children did not idealize their parents due to absence of emotional connect
Males are only involved in commercial affairs like trading pigs, musical
instruments, exchange of other goods
Females were found to be major food supplier working in gardens and fields
It was found that infant and children’s in earlier stages of life formed disconnect with their parents which in turn shaped their personality
Within 10-15 days after delivery mothers returns to their outdoor activity, leaving infant to grandparent and their elder sibling
Thus, since beginning the comfort of material presence is missing
Breast feeding is very irregular leading to oral frustration in infants and
hence the resulted anxiety.
These things shape the overall personality of kids of Allure Islands - continuous interplay of culture and personality influences each other
Conclusion
In the opinion of CORA DU BOIS - the constellation of traits shared by most of the members of given culture of society comprise of modal personality which is dominant social pattern found in that society or culture
Criticism of CPS (Culture Personality School)
Derek Freeman
He was a New Zealand Based Anthropologists
The actual Samoan society is totally contradicting to the findings of Margret Mead.
Males and females are not in very much cordial relation. There Is a strong virginity complex among the Samoans
Kwakiutls
Ruth Benedict mentioned about antagonism and hostility in Kwakiutls
She ignored the aspects of cooperations in tough climatic conditions. its not possible to survive in isolation in such hostile environment
Zunis
Latter studies of Zunis found the alcoholism and suicidal tendencies amongst them
Morris Opler 1
Morris Opler was American Anthropologists. He criticised the school being very narrow in its approach, considering only culture and personality as the
integrating factors but there can be multiple others like the environmental factors, economic factors
Morris Opler 2
He maintained that there can be a midway in relationship of males and females to avoid the competition and aggressiveness as found in maximum of the societies like sharing of resources
Focus on Infancy
Maximum CPS anthropologists focused on infancy and childhood as the only determinacy's of personality but it is practically possible that the experiences of adulthood shapes the personality at large
No Complex Societies
More emphasis on simple small-scale societies and ignorance on complex societies
Primary Category
kardiner did not explained any institution under the primary category and also influence of secondary institutions on the primary one’s
✅7. Culture Personality School (CPS)(Summary)
Anthropologist
Books Written
Concepts Given
Tribals Studied & Fieldwork
Concepts Explained
Ruth Benedict
Patterns of Culture
Culture Pattern, Guardian Spirit, Cultural Traits, Cultural Complexes
Zunis, Kwakiutls, Dobus (South West Mexico, North West Canada, Melanesia)
Culture viewed as consisting of cultural or specific configuration under a general master pattern. Integration of culture based on special genius or soul.
Margret Mead
Coming of Age in Samoa, Sex & Temperament in three primitive societies
BPT is a collection of fundamental personality traits shared by members of a society. It lies between primary and secondary institutions.
Ralph Linton
-
Total Personality Type, Real Culture, Ideal Culture, Culture Construct
-
Total Personality Type is an extension of BPT. It includes both Basic and Additional Personality.
Cora Du Bois
-
Modal Personality Type, Ink Blot Test (IBT), Thematic Appreciation Test (TAT)
Allure Island of East India in Indonesian Region
Modal Personality Type is BPT expressed most frequently in behavior. It's based on the interplay between culture and personality.
This table provides a concise summary of the works and contributions of the mentioned anthropologists. It can serve as a quick reference guide for comparative revision.
✅8. Symbolic and Interpretive School
Proponents
Anthropologist
Nationality
School/Approach
Influences
Focus
Contribution/Role
Victor Turner
Scottish
Symbolic Anthropology
Durkheim
Social elements and structure
Emphasized symbols, rituals, and rites in social life.
Clifford Geertz
American
Interpretive Anthropology
Weber, He
Culture as main subject of study
Developed the concept of "thick description" to understand cultural meanings.
D. Schneider
American
Symbolic & Interpretive
ㅤ
Supported symbolic and interpretive school
Associated with the symbolic and interpretive approaches, but with no major individual contribution
Please note that the information provided is based on the context you've given, and any additional or more detailed information about these anthropologists could lead to a more comprehensive table.
Symbolic Anthropology - Basic Theme
After emergence of this school we started domain of “Symbolic Anthropology”
It considers culture as symbols
Emerged as reaction to structuralism and cultural materialism
Culture is Interpretation of Symbol
Duty of Anthropologists is to Interpret Symbols, Not Make Rules & Generalisations
Symbols represent the unique identity of a specific group. These symbols hold meaning within their cultural context and are learned and shared by members of that society. Analysing and interpreting these symbols can help us understand the social reality of that group
It says that symbols are learned and shared by members of a particular society. So analysis of interpretation of symbols can explain social reality
Culture is an independent system of meaning to be deciphered through interpretation of prominent symbols and rituals
Interpretive Anthropology - Basic Theme
Interpretive Approach says that analysis of culture should not be experimental science in search of laws and generalisations but an interpretive one to understand the underlying significance and meaning
According to Geertz - Human is in need to certain sources of illumination or motivation to orient himself/herself with respect to social systems and symbols act as such guiding light
SIA & Social Action
Social Action is any meaningful act oriented towards the others
Turner states that symbols initiate the social actions and are having deterministic influences on people and groups
Summary of SIA School
Geertz illustrates the interpretive approach of Symbolic Anthropology whereas Turner illustrates the Symbolic Approach to symbolic Anthropology
Hence the goalof SIA is to analyse how people give meaning to their reality and how this reality is expressed as cultural symbols
Traditionally Symbolic Anthro was focusing on limited domains particularly on religions, custom, mythology, norms etc. but later got transformed involving maximum aspects of society and culture
He was influenced by the sociologist like weber and like weber he was also
interested in operations of culture
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Verstehen was used by weber to understand social realities and facets of culture. Verstehen is derived from the science of Hermeneutics - talking about interpretative understanding
(Geertz was influenced by Weberian approach of Verstehen)
Lets understand something by Interpreting
Culture is Historically Transmitted Pattern (Pattern of Meanings associated with Symbols)
Symbols are the vehicles through which the culture and cultural elements are transmitted to the next generation.
This symbols are not only in same culture but also nearby culture(means indirect support to - diffusion, acculturation & historical particularism)
Geertz was an American Anthropologists and one of the leading name in interpretive Anthropology. He focused on “operations on culture based on the Weberian approach”
Geertz argued that culture is an act of interpretation of any social action which is meaningful as was defined by weber in his approach of verstehen. Verstehen which is derived from the science of hermeneutics and is about interpretative understanding
Culture as per Geertz is “Historically transmitted pattern of meaning which is embodied in symbols”
It is the duty of anthropologists to interpret these symbols, these symbols were refereed as vehicles of culture by Geertz and are used to express value orientation, ethos of culture and various other aspects
Ethos: Accepted Norms Generally Associated with Society
Geertz maintained that culture is expressed by external symbols used by the
society rather than the things locked inside human head i.e. culture can be generalised as a social phenomenon & as a shared system of symbols and meanings
Work 1 : Thick Description & Javanese Funeral
Introduction
It involves the interpretation of any social action, ritual, or practice, etc., by an anthropologist based on the information provided by local people, employing both etic and emic approaches. When you interpret based on an insider's view (EMIC) and then interpret according to your own thinking (ETIC)
This concept is grounded in Gilbert Ryle's "blink" and "wink" concept, i.e., the mental processes and reasoning offered by natives or insiders related to specific elements of culture. Anthropologists must combine these insights with their practical experiences to arrive at an interpretation of symbols.
In Geertz's interpretation, "blink" refers to an involuntary movement, while "wink" signifies an intentional act. "Blink" has a biological basis and a fixed scientific foundation, making it a Thick Description. In contrast, a "wink" can be a conspiratorial signal or a way to communicate something discreetly to someone else. Therefore, it requires a thick description.
Just as a wink can be a form of communication, sending a message that must be interpreted by the recipient as a distinct message, various cultural elements and symbols also carry separate interpretations. It is the duty of the anthropologist to understand these symbols, decipher their underlying meanings, and comprehend their roles within a particular society and culture.
Thus, thick description involves a multifaceted interpretation of a symbol, facilitating the understanding of cultural elements on a broader scale
Example of Thick Description by Geertz : Javanese Funeral
Present religion in Java was traditionally indigenous Southeast Asian animism. Due to external influences, it later evolved into a syncretic combination of Hinduism, Islam, and indigenous animism. This resultant religion encompasses myths and rituals from all three.
In the 20th century, the equilibrium between these three religions was disrupted as prophetic or Islamic religious nationalism gained dominance. This crystallized form prevailed, overshadowing the rest and influencing post-independent Indonesia. Political parties aligned with these divisions, and the distinctions in rituals and beliefs became evident, particularly in their funeral rites.
The interpretation of these diverse funeral rituals provides a deep understanding of underlying beliefs, allowing for the decryption of cultural aspects.
In conclusion, the interpretation of funeral practices and the subsequent formation of political parties with defined religious identity agendas exemplify the classic application of thick description.
Real Life Example
Hindus - Cremate
Muslims - Bury
Indigenous Animism - Purification Ceremony + Offering to Spirits & Communal Gatherings to pay respect to the deceased
Example of Thick Description by Self : Japanese Tea Ceremony
Case Study: The Tea Ceremony
Cultural Context: The Japanese tea ceremony, "chanoyu," symbolizes mindfulness and respect, with deep meaning in every gesture, held in a carefully crafted tea room.
Symbolic Gestures: Each movement in the ceremony, from tea preparation to serving, carries profound symbolism, encouraging mindfulness and attentiveness.
Inherent Meanings: Rooted in historical values like "wabi-sabi," the ceremony finds beauty in imperfection and uses simple, rustic utensils to reflect appreciation for the natural and transient.
Participant Perspectives: The host fosters harmony, while guests appreciate the shared experience that connects generations through a profound contemplative practice.
Local Interpretations: To outsiders, it's formal tea service, but participants find a rich cultural practice that embodies philosophy, aesthetics, and interpersonal bonds.
Conclusion: The tea ceremony's thick description uncovers its layers of symbolism, history, and cultural significance, going beyond tea to reveal a complex cultural tradition.
Conclusion of Thick Description
Clifford Geertz maintained that these symbols are patterned within the behavior of social life. By analysing the entirety of the culture along with its constituent parts, an anthropologist develops a thick description that outlines the mental processes and reasoning of the natives, enriched by the anthropologist's own interpretations.
Work 2 : Balinese Cock Fight
Exploring the Balinese Cockfight: Unveiling Culture
Introduction
In the article "Deep Play: Notes On the Balinese Cockfight" by Geertz, we dive deep into understanding something more than what meets the eye. Geertz takes a close look at the Balinese cockfight, showing us that it's not just a game, but a way to understand the Balinese culture better.
Sabung & its Significance
We learn about something called "Sabung", which is the Balinese term for cockfight. Geertz tells us that the cockfight isn't just a game. It's like a special window that helps us see into the Balinese culture.
Aspects of this Fight
They also get more respect from others. Geertz tells us that this respect can even make them more important in their community
Geertz also talks about how the roosters become like family to their owners. People take care of them like their own children. It's even stranger that some people start seeing their own selves in these birds
We find out that not everyone can play the cockfighting game. Some people can only watch. This shows that in Balinese society, there are different groups, and not everyone has the same chances. This shows Stratification in Balinese Society
Women and Kids aren't allowed to Participate even as Spectators leaning towards strong patriarchal setup and social code for children
It has a functional aspect and helps in resolving disputes. If two groups are fighting, the winner of the cockfight gets to decide who's right.
Conclusion
Balance cockfight gets Drew, themes of bail in the society and highlighted status, hierarchy, stratifications mode of entertainment dispute resolution mechanism, prevalent gambling habits associated with it
Turners Anthropology (Symbolic Anthropology)
Introduction
Turner’s approach to symbols was different from that of Geertz. Turner did not consider symbols as vehicles of culture, instead of that he recognized symbols as
operators in social process + that instigate social action → Leading to Social Change/Transformation
Turner considered that social transformation, which are an outcome of social action
maintain the norms in the society
promote the solidarity
help in resolution of conflicts amongst members
Three Properties of Symbols According to Turner
Multi Vocality
Condensation
Polarisation
Represents Different Meanings of Symbols at Different Times based on different Location and Situations
Represents Multiple Meanings associated with symbol at same point of time
Symbols may ask members to do something and sometimes to not do something
Example : Different Dances at Different Times
Example : interpretation of jajmani System
Example : Religious Symbols
Theory of Liminality by Turner
Liminality - Originally by Van Gennep
Background
Dictionary Meaning of Liminality is Relating to Transitional Stage of a Process
This concept is influenced and motivated by the ‘Rites of Passage’ by the French anthropologist, Arnold van Gennep
'Rites of Passage' discusses the fundamental process underlying the change in an individual’s status within society
Gennep's perspective on liminality: He argued that for individuals and groups, life revolves around cycles of separation and reunification, progressing through various stages and conditions
Three States of Rites of Passage According to Gennep
Pre-liminal – Separation
Detaches the individual from their existing position in the social structure
After this separation, the individual's former social status no longer applies.
Liminal – Transitional
The individual has no clearly defined status or role
Such individuals can be considered to be on the margins of society and are ready to adopt a new role
Post-liminal - Reincorporation
Represents the acquisition of a new status, marking a re-entry into society.
Van Gennep believed that life is characterised by transitions from one social group or situation to another. He also noted that these transitions share processual similarities, which he termed as "rites of passage."
Liminality - by Victor Turner
Introduction to Victor Turners Liminality
Victor built upon Gennep's approach and further developed the theory of liminal phases (Rites of Passage) with his unique interpretation of liminality
Turner Describes Liminality as a “movement between fixed points”
Liminals are individuals undergoing change, positioned between roles defined by societal customs, laws, etc. The societal status of liminals is often ambiguous
Turners Liminality in Ndembu People of Zambia
Victor conducted fieldwork among the Ndembu People of Zambia, emphasising rituals as symbolic representations
Book: 'Schism and Continuity in African Society: Study of Ndembu Village Life'
Victor's liminal stages highlight transitions to socially recognized positions. In essence, liminality is a movement between fixed points, characterised by ambiguity, uncertainty, and discomfort
According to Victor, liminality is a limbo—an uncertain or ambiguous period. Liminals might feel humiliated, isolated, and frequently tested by society.
Turners Liminality in Puberty Rituals of Ndembu Girls called Nkanga
Victor elucidated liminality using the puberty rituals of Ndembu girls, known as NKANGA
During this ritual, the girl is wrapped in a blanket and positioned at the base of a mudyi sapling, referred to as the "milk tree" by the Ndembu because it exudes a white milky latex
This milk tree and the NKANGA ritual are dominant symbols for the Ndembu
The tree's latex’s resemblance of breast milk, signifies the girl's biological transition (liminal stage, as per Victor) between childhood and motherhood
Conclusion of Victor's Liminality Perspective
The discussion on the girl's puberty ritual extends to the concept of nourishment. The latex content in the milk tree is analogous to the nourishment provided by breast milk for a forthcoming child
Victor posited that, at its deepest level of interpretation, the milk tree symbol represents the unity and continuity of the Ndembu society, serving as a cohesive force binding its members
Thus, the milk tree and the NKANGA ritual are dominant symbols in Ndembu society, warranting a comprehensive analysis or "thick description."
Theory of Social Drama by Turner
Turner explored the dialectical elements inherent in societies. He posited that these elements drive social transformation and change.
Turner's theory suggests that social drama arises within a group when latent differences and dialectics come to the fore due to specific events or actions. This drama unfolds in a sequential manner:
Breach - A violation or disruption of social norms or relations.
Crisis - The escalation of the breach, leading to a societal crisis.
Redressive Action - Efforts to remedy or address the crisis.
Reintegration - The society either achieves a new equilibrium or disintegrates further.
Critique of the Symbolic and Interpretive School
The Symbolic and Interpretive Anthropology (S/A) school lacked concrete ideas to substantiate their claims regarding symbols as catalysts for social change.
There was an absence of materialistic considerations, empirical data, historical context, and other vital facets of anthropological research. The S/A approach was largely rooted in imaginative insights about culture
Geertz faced significant criticism from feminists for neglecting the role of women in Balinese society
Post-modernists critiqued the subjective and open-ended methodology of symbolic anthropology
Social transformations can occur without the need for social drama, facilitated by elements such as globalisation, technology, communication, etc.
✅8. Symbolic and Interpretive School (Summary)
Anthropologist
Nationality
School/Approach
Influences
Focus
Contribution/Role
Victor Turner
Scottish
Symbolic Anthropology
Durkheim
Social elements and structure
Emphasized symbols, rituals, and rites in social life.
Clifford Geertz
American
Interpretive Anthropology
Weber, He
Culture as main subject of study
Developed the concept of "thick description" to understand cultural meanings.
D. Schneider
American
Symbolic & Interpretive
ㅤ
Supported symbolic and interpretive school
Associated with the symbolic and interpretive approaches, but with no major individual contribution
Aspect
Symbolic Anthropology
Interpretive Anthropology
Basic Theme
Culture is seen as symbols.
Focuses on underlying significance.
Emergence
Reaction to structuralism and cultural materialism.
-
Culture's Nature
Culture is an interpretation of symbols.
-
Anthropologist's Role
Interpret symbols; not make rules/generalisations
-
Symbolic Meaning
Symbols represent unique identity, cultural context.
Symbols guide human orientation.
Learning & Sharing Symbols
Symbols learned/shared by society members.
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Interpretation of Symbols
Analysis helps understand social reality.
Interpretive approach for significance.
Culture as Independent System
Culture as system of meaning deciphered through symbols.
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Domain Focus
Traditionally on religion, customs, mythology, norms, etc.
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Aspect
Geertzian Anthropology
Turners Anthropology
Introduction
Influence of Weberian approach on culture operations.
Symbols as operators in social processes.
Concept of Culture
Historically transmitted pattern of meaning in symbols.
Symbols instigate social action and transformation.
Role of Symbols
Vehicles of culture, express value orientation and ethos.
Operators in social processes, drive social change.
Approach to Symbols
Interpretation of symbols.
Understanding symbols as agents of social transformation.
Thick Description
Interpretation involving insider view, combined with anthropologist's perspective.
Focuses on dialectical elements and social drama.
Examples
Javanese funeral practices.
Ndembu Nkanga Ritual, Balinese Cock Fight.
Liminality Theory
Liminality as movement between fixed points, ambiguity.
Liminality as a transitional state, part of social transformation.
Theory of Social Drama
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Social drama as a sequence: Breach, Crisis, Redressive Action, Reintegration.
Please note that the examples have been summarized for brevity. This table aims to give you a concise overview of the main points from your notes for easier revision.
✅9. Cognitive Theory
Introduction
Can also be called as New Ethnographic School
Harold Conklin, S. Tyler (Supported Conklin) and GoodEnough
Noteworthy role of GoodEnough, despite not being in the syllabus
Basic Concepts
Cognition is - Mind / Intellect Thought
Human Thought Process + Society + Culture - Has Direct Relation with How People Make Sense of Reality
It is closely related to Psychology
Theme : Whatever is taking place in society is reality of that society and it makes sense out of it
What does this Theory Do
Cognitive theory, studies relationship between human thought process and broader society and culture in respect of giving priority to how people make sense out of reality
This reality in minds of members of society is not only organising elements of culture and society, but also utilisation of these elements by member considering them sensible
Emerged in 1960, Cognitive anthropology studies how people understand, material objects, events and experiences
that is how people make sense out of social reality not according to anthropologist POV (ETIC), but according to their own cognitive understanding as perceived by them (EMIC)
Cognitive school is close related to psychology in exploring nature of cognitive processes. Considering anthropology as formal science, maintaining that culture is composed of logical rules which could only be understood an approach through mind or cognition.
Discipline is not concerned with describing events but tries to figure out social and cultural, appropriate thought process in that context
Good Enough’s Definition of Cognitive Theory
Ring cognitive approach good enough defined culture as a conceptual model underlying human behaviour refers to standards for deciding what one feels about something and how to approach for doing that something
New Ethnography / Ethno Science by Good Enough
This was explained by good enough in his paper. He was another significant contributor in development of Anthropological studies of 18th & 19th century as they were suffering from double Dose of Subjectivity
More and more scholars and researchers entered field of ethnography. It was noticed by new researchers that places revisited by them after some earlier studies and outcomes of these researches were not concurrent to previous findings, Surprisingly there were new results which were conflicting and contrasting. This challenged reliability and validity of earlier Ethnographies.
Hence new ethnographic came into picture.
Primarily focused on EMIC Perspective i.e Insiders Point of View and Cognition
It Relied on Cognition in their Native Language (This Approach became more famous after flourishment of Linguistic Anthropology)
So New Ethnography was no longer a simple description of what was observed but it was more of what was associated with underlining of thought processes based on People's conception of the society and culture
Example of ETIC & EMIC : Deric Freeman and Margret Mead Studied Samoan Island
Harold Conklin’s Cognitive Theory
Books
Ethnogenealogical Methods
Lexicographical Treatment of Folk Taxonomies
Studies
Hanunoo Tribe of Ph - Studies Interpretation of Color by Hanunoo People
Conklin Studies Hanunoo Tribe of Ph & their understanding and interpretation of Colors
He Found that Hanunoo people recognised four prominent colors i.e Black, White, Red & Green and these people try to explain other colors in relation to these colors
like blackness, redness, light green, dark green etc.
Conklin argued that his understanding of color should be imposed on hanunoo people, thus supporting cognitive approach
Conclusion
Cognitive Approach in Anthropology is primarily concerned with EMIC interpretation of meanings ; that is reaching up to meaning of cultural element as it has for its actors & followers i.e insiders perspective.
Also school focused to understand how meaning is acquired by different members of group through learning and cognition.
✅9. Cognitive Theory (Summary)
Introduction
Also known as New Ethnographic School.
Key Figures: Harold Conklin, S. Tyler (Supported Conklin), and GoodEnough.
Note: Noteworthy role of GoodEnough, despite not being in the syllabus.
Basic Concepts
Cognition is the mind/intellect thought.
Human Thought Process + Society + Culture = Direct Relation to Sense of Reality.
Closely related to Psychology.
Theme: Society's activities define its reality, creating a sensible understanding.
What the Theory Does
Cognitive theory studies the connection between human thought processes and society/culture.
Reality in minds of society members organizes culture elements, utilized sensibly.
Emerged in 1960; studies how people understand objects, events, experiences.
Focuses on individuals' cognitive understanding (EMIC) of social reality.
Linked to psychology, exploring cognitive processes within cultural contexts.
Anthropology as a formal science, understanding culture through cognition.
Concerned with uncovering appropriate thought processes in a cultural context.
Good Enough’s Definition of Cognitive Theory
GoodEnough: Culture as a conceptual model underlying behavior.
Culture defines standards for feelings and approaches towards actions.
New Ethnography / Ethno Science by GoodEnough
Responded to subjectivity in 18th-19th-century ethnographies.
Scholars observed discrepancies in revisited places, challenging validity.
Approach:
Emphasized EMIC Perspective (Insiders Point of View) and Cognition.
Relied on Native Language and Cognition (influence of Linguistic Anthropology).
New Ethnography focused on thought processes, not just descriptions.
Harold Conklin’s Cognitive Theory
Books:
Ethnogenealogical Methods.
Lexicographical Treatment of Folk Taxonomies.
Studies:
Hanunoo Tribe of Ph:
Interpreting Color by Hanunoo People.
Four primary colors: Black, White, Red, Green.
Other colors explained in relation to these primaries.
Conklin imposed his understanding on Hanunoo, supporting cognitive approach.
Conclusion
Cognitive Approach in Anthropology focuses on EMIC interpretation.
Concerned with reaching cultural element meanings from insiders' perspective.
Focuses on meaning acquisition through learning and cognition.
✅10. Post Modernism
Anthropology cannot be pure science in the opinion of post modernist
Prominent Names - Michel Foucault, Jacques Deride, James Clifford
Emerged as a critique to scientific approach in anthropology. That anthropology cannot be considered as a formal science because of the involved subjectivity in socio cultural spheres
Subjectivity could be
Subjectivity of humans thought process
Subjectivity in reactions in different situations
Subjectivity in interpretation of social reality
This Leads to subjectivity in boarder society and culture
2 Different Approaches in Post Modernism
Skeptic Post Modernism
Extremely, critical to the earliest schools of thoughts & modern scientific approach in anthropology etc. It argued that all the multiple theories given by anthropologists cannot be true so it would be better to reject them all
Affirmative Post Modernism
They Were less rigid. They said that instead of total rejection and abolishment of earlier theories, transformation in those theories can be considered, picking up some valid older arguments and adding up some new ones
About Post Modernist
Most modernist were opposed to singular narratives of any event i.e the objective approach i.e an authoritative definition which is objective cannot be possible accepted in anthropology
Post Modernist concluded with arguments of negating the part of earlier theories and addition of new elements to understand society and culture (Intuitive Interpretation)
Methodology
They were basically against rules and generalisation, they termed their methodology as De Construction
De Construction Simple means arbitrariness of viewpoints of earlier anthropologists and not considering them as a part of anthropological theories
Methodology of Addition of New Element is called Intuitive Interpretation
Intuitive Interpretation used by post modernist was based on introspection i.e visualising possible interpretation i.e new elements of
8. Conclusion
Post-modernist believe that anthropological Texts influenced by political and social context within which they are trained so this research is not sacrosanct and should not be accepted as an element in anthropological theory without additions and subtractions that is deconstruction and intuitive. Interpretation should be a part of research methodology in totality
Modernism which emerged after renascence, particularly in Europe, implied about progressive, economic and social equality, confining religion, to personal sphere and development of scientific temper and innovative mindset to enhance use of technology.
anthropological school of thoughts emerged with modernism with elements of scientific approach and post-modernism emerged as a critique to scientific approaches
✅10. Post Modernism (Summary)
1. Introduction
Anthropology not purely a science, according to post modernists.
Prominent Figures: Michel Foucault, Jacques Derrida, James Clifford.
A critique of scientific approach in anthropology due to subjectivity in socio-cultural spheres.
2. Subjectivity in Anthropology
Subjectivity in human thought process.
Subjectivity in reactions to different situations.
Subjectivity in interpretation of social reality.
Leads to subjectivity in broader society and culture.
3. Two Approaches in Post Modernism
3.1 Skeptic Post Modernism
Highly critical of early schools of thought and scientific approach.
Proposes rejection of multiple conflicting theories in total
3.2 Affirmative Post Modernism
Less rigid than skeptic approach
Suggests transformation of earlier theories, combining valid old arguments with new ones
4. Post Modernist Characteristics
Rejects singular objective narratives.
Embraces intuitive interpretation.
Combines negation of old theories with addition of new elements.
5. Methodology
Deconstruction:
Against rules and generalizations.
Rejects arbitrary viewpoints of earlier anthropologists.
Intuitive Interpretation:
Adds new elements to theories.
Relies on introspection and visualizing possible interpretations.
6. Conclusion
Anthropological texts influenced by political and social context.
Research not sacrosanct, needs deconstruction and intuitive interpretation.
Post modernism critiques and enriches anthropological theory.
