Tryst with Destiny - Lahori Gate of Red Fort 1947 Conditions of India on the Eve of Independence
Many Top Countries predicted that India as a new found country by the sword point of British will not be a Nation for initial 10 Years also.
Heavy Industries - Coal, Mining, Power, Steel, Automobile
Despotism - India being governed according to Indian Independence Act, 1947, we are free but are being ruled according to, IIA & not our constitution
When Britishers came to India 25%, When Britishers Left India < 4%
Prime Ministers
Summary
Prelude
Post Independence is a Tricky Period, All Developments in UPSC is of after 1947
Foreign Policy, Bi Lateral Relations, International Relations - (IR) Constitutional Developments ( POLITY), Economic Policies (ECONOMY), Problems within India, Societal Problems - IN UPSC Modules
He was made the chairman by British because they thought that he would be Neutral to India.
He needed Census data and demographic data, for partition
Last census data was very old 1921/1941
There was no Indian Expert Available
He had to do this in few weeks, deadline for Partition
this was his first experience dividing the country
Hence he made some hasty decisions
Summary
Boundary Report Locked
Boundary Report was given to Mountbatten on 13 August 1947
But he locked it until after Independence
So that there was no message to the world that British divided India just before giving it Independence
Episodes in North West was more Violent
Many of their Religious Shrines were in Pakistan
Punjabis were a Martial Race
Than Bengal
Leaders Like Gandhi was there
Gandhis Fast
Urging Nehru’s Government to Give Money to Pakistan to Give Money
Refugees Crisis
Rehabilitation & Shelter & Jobs for Refugee Crisis was a Huge economic Burden on already impoverished Country
Summary
Consolidation of Indian Territories
Fate of Princely States
Princely States were technically denied Independence under Mountbatten Plan
Choices to Princely States
To Either Sign a Stand Still Agreement with Either India or Pakistan
Points
Essentially a Bi Lateral Treaty
British Control over PS would End
but Technically they wouldn’t be a Part of India or Pakistan
To Decide - Time Out - Which to Join
Summary
Instrument of Accession with Either India or Pakistan
Points
A PS signing IOA meant they, India would control Defence, Communication & Foreign Affairs
the PS signing IOA would be given Internal Autonomy for subjects beyond the above three
Summary
Creation of State Departments, 1947
Headed by Sardar Patel
How was IOA more attractive than SSA
Princely State to Acceede to India were
Baroda
Problematic Ones - Minor
Jodhpur
Bhopal
Travancore
Problematic Ones - Major
Kashmir
Dogra Rulers Purchased Kashmir from Sikhs
Hari Singh Dogra
Hindu Ruler & Muslim Majority
SSA with Pakistan
Intervention of USA & Britain
UN Resolution - Temporarily Ended the War in 1948
Cease Fire Line Established
LOC Established
When LOC Estab - Pakistan Didnt Vacate
it is called PoK & Azad Kashmir - Capital Muzzafarabad
Constituent Assembly of 1951 - CA of 1951 accepted Kashmir
CA of Kashmir dissolved in 1957
1951 Resolution - Fate of Kashmir through Referrendum
Referrendum hasnt happened yet, Why ?
Pre Condition to Refferendum, the Pakistani Troops have to Vacate POK
Hence No Referrendum Yet
To Bring More Contol Over Kashmir - Kashmit si Divided into 2 Union Territories - Leh & Ladakh && Jammu & Kashmir
Junagarh
Muslim Rulers ( Nawab Muhabbat Khan ) & Hindu Population ( wanted to Join with India )
Junagrah was not a Continuos Grohrpahy with India
Due to Popular Pressure Mohabbat Khan Escaped & Ran Away to Pakistan
Plebiscite, Februrary 1948
90 Peercentage of people voted in Favour of Joining INdia
Hyderabad
Ruler in 1947 - Osman Ali Khan or Asaf Jahan VII
ML proposed Southern Pakistan Osmanistan
Possibility of Osmanistan was ruled out of joining Pkaistan by June 3rd
Pro Nizam Political Party Hyderbad - Ittehadul Muslimeen
Miliaty Wing of IM was Razakars - Head of Kazakars - Qasim Rizvi
Qasim Rizvi Unleashed Violence on Non Muslims of Hdyerabad
People seeked Help
in September 1948 GOI resoted to Military Operation called Operation Polo
Hyderabad was forcefully Integrated with India
Later Osmaan Ali Khan was Made governor of Hyderabad
Sardar Patel
Within Span of 2 Years - Sardar Patel Integrated 552/565 PS into Country.
Called Iron Man of India
Called Bismarck of India
Before he could Integrate Foreign Controlled Territories of French & Portugal, he Passed away in 1950
JLN Head of Congress
After Demise of Patel & Gandhi. JLN was undisputed Leader of Congress
1954 - French Territories Acquired After Negotiations
1961 - Portuguese Forced to Vacate Goa through Operation Vijay
Drafting an Appropriate Constitutions
Indian Constituent Assembly Dates
Indian Constituent Assembly Facts
Head of First Interim CA - Sacchidanand Sinha
Head of Constituent Assembly in Constituent Capacity - Rajendra Prasad - First President
Head of Constituent Assembly to work as a Legislature as a Parliament of India - G V Mavalankar - First Speaker
Leaders of Constitution
Expert Lawyers
When Constitution Came into Force
Indian became a SDR
GOIA, 1935 & IIA, 1947 - Repealed
Elections were to be Conducted in India
First Election Commissioner of India - Sukumar Sen
Establishing Democracy
Background
ECI
ECI Created
Sukumar Sen 1 ECI
Elections
First Election - First Lok Sabha - 1951-52
Second Election - Second Lok Sabha - 1952-57
Third Election - Third Lok Sabha - 1957 - 62
Symbols & Color Coded Ballot Boxes - To Cater to Illiterate Masses of India
First Three Elections was Dominated by Congress in Both Centre & Provincial Legislature
Important Point of UAF - Manipur & Himachal Pradesh
Manipur was PS & King Bodi Chandra declared that Manipur would be a Constitutional Monarchy, Elections Happened in the Princely State of Manipur in 1949 based on UAF
BUT THESE ELECTIONS WERENT NEW ELECTIONS OF INDIA
First General Election in 1951-52, in 1951 Election was conducted only in Himachal Pradesh ( so as to conduct elections before arrival of Winters )
Congress System Period, 1962-67
Second Party was CPI in First General Elections
Even then Nehru Included Leaders from Other Political Party in his CoM like Shyama Prasad Mukherjee & Ambedkar
Other Parties in India
Emergency in 1959
Lingustics Problem
Languages
8th Schedule - Had 14 Languages
Union Govt had 2 Official Languages - Hindi & English ( To be Reconsidered in 1965 )
Chronology
Summary
S K Dhar Commission, 1948 -
No Linguistic Province can be Created
Protest in South India
against recommendation of S K Dhar
JVP Committee, 1948
Jawhar Lal Nehru, Vallab Bhai Patel & Pattavi SeetaramayyaAlso Denied Creation of Linguistic States but if demand for such a state continued for a long time. Hence there would be a Possibility Protest Continued in TN
Death of Potti Sriramulu, 1952
Fasted Unto Death, 1952
Creation of AP in 1953Fazl Ali Commission, 1953 Recommendation of Fazal Ali Commission
Language could be a Criteria but could not be the Only Criteria
States Reorganisations Act, 1956
Accepted Creation of AP
Demand for Creation of More Linguistic States Emerged
Add from Handout - Remember All States in Series BG Kher Commission, 1955
Official Languages Commission
English Usage by GOI should be Gradually faced out by 1965
This was a Contradictory Situation
On One Hand, Linguistics States were Made, On Other Hand, South Indians were asked to communicate in Hindi with Govt
Protest Against Kher Recommendation Official Languages Act, 1963
Passed by Nehru
Promised English Usage will Continue well beyond 1965
Despite this Act, Protest in South India Cotinued
Ambiguity in the Act = Protest
May & Shall
No Certainty regarding Official Language
Nehru Passed Away 1963 Shastri had More Pressing Problem Amendment to Official Languages Act, 1967 - Indira Gandhi
Union Govt Decision & Permanent Policy of Bilingualism
Foreign Policy & External Aggression
Major Goals
India China
Points
Wanted to Expand Sphere of Friendship & Not of Hostility, Given the Backdrop of Cold War
India maintained relations with most of the Neighbouring Countries, despite their aggression
China didn’t condemn annexation of tibet by china in 1951 which was communist party by then
Signed Panchsheel with China
China ( Zo En Lai ) & India ( JLN) Promised to not fight with Each Other
Not to Interfere with Each Others Internal Affairs
Leader Tibet ( Dalai Lama - ? ) Gave Political Asylum to Tenseng Gyaso; this angered china
India China War
China Citing Territorial Disputes waged a war with India in
China Attracted International Condemnation from the World
China Uni Laterally backed out
For the First Time No Confidence Motion was brought in against Nehru ; It Failed
Summary Detailed
Non Alignment Movement
is NOT Neutrality in World Affairs, But NOT Continued Allegiance or Alignment to a Party
Given the Episodes between USSR & USA, On whosoever side Justice would be there India would support them
Krumar Nasser Tito
Economic Challenges
Economic Policy for an Impoverished Nation
Points
Rapid Industrialisation & Self Reliance ( Give Up Imports)
Wanted to end capitalist domination
Had 2 Choices
Either Capitalist Pattern of Economy
Would Make Rich Poor Divide more Intense
There was already
Either Socialistic Pattern of Economy
Dictatorial
But
Till times of Nehru any country who chose Socialistic Form of Economy had dictatorial Government
For the First time Nehru’s Govt was the First Democratically Elected Govt giving Shape to Socialist Form of Economy
Hence
Nehru’s Economy Leaned towards socialism but had elements of Capitalism
Hence Called Democratic Socialism
Important Decisions
Goals
Inspirations & Contributions
Bombay Plan
Gandhis Plan
Peoples Plan
Success of Communists Russia
First Person to Suggest Planned Economy was Sir Vishveswarayya
Five Year Plans - Nehruvian Era
Annual Plans or Plan Holidays (1966-69)
Why did the First & Second Five Year Plan Succeed ?
Modelled After USSR
Efficient Implementation
Why Did the Third Five Year Plan Fail ?
Indo China War & Indo Pak War
Drought of 2 Year in the Middle of Plan
Untimely Death of Nehru ( 1964 ) & Shastri ( 1966 ) ; Political Uncertainty
Wars Increased Inflation, Hence Damage Controlled
Temples of Modern India
Support by Govt for Success of Five Year Plans
Full Forms
Nuclear - Fission Reactors - Trombay 1956
Iron & Steel Plant - Bhilai Rourkela
CSIR, 1942 → Increase in Quantity
NPL Establishment → Created Bureau of Indian Standards
AEC - Atomic Energy Commissions
Encouraged Modern Science by Impetus to INCOSPAR - First - Indian Council for Space Research - Later Become ISRO - Indian Space Research Organisation
TERLS - Tumbha Equatorial Rocket Launching Station
Summary
Steps Towards Food Security
Summary
PARALLEL TO BELOW DEVELOPMENTS
Bhoodan & Gramdan Movements, 1950
Gandhians Like Bhave appealed to Land Owning Class to donate a piece of Land to Landless Owners
Land Reforms, 1951
Distribute Agricultural Land amongst Land Less Peasants
Initiatives
Land Ceiling - Max Land by
Abolished Intermediaries Like Zameendar's
Land Revenues were drastically reduced
Tenancy Reforms Introduced - So Peasants have control over land for a longer period of time
DEVELOPMENTS
AMUL - GCMMF, 1946
Gujarat Cooperative Milk Marketting Federation established by Tribhuvan Das Patel in 1946
Later was renamed as AMUL - Verghese Kurien
ARC / JCK Committee, 1949
ARC - Agrarian Reforms Committee
by Kunwarappa
CDP, 1952
Community Development Program
Overall welfare of Villages - 80 Indian Population was still living in Rural Areas
CDP became Inefficient and Food Crisis Started in India
IADP, 1961
Intensive Agriculture Development Program
Specific Focus on Agriculture
Co Operatives & Banks Established, Loans given to Farmers
HYVS, 1962-65
High Yielding varieties of Seeds Particularly in Wheat Productions
IAAP, 1964
Intensive Agriculture Area Program
Encouraged Scientific & Intensive Agriculture
Modern Chemicals and Irrigation
Ultimately Led to Green Revolution in India
Socio Cultural Challenges
Better Society Builds a Better Nations
Summary
Problems
Problems
Diversity
Caste & Associated
Poverty
Hunger
Malnutrition
Unemployment
Tribal People Lacked Development
Position of Women in Society
Solutions - Social Policies
Constitutional Safeguards & Directives
Fundamental Rights (Art 12 - 35) - Not Absolute Subject to Reasonable Restrictions
Art 14 - Equality
Art 17 - Untouchability
Art 21 - Rt to Life
FR were made Justiciable - to be Upheld by Law
DPSP ( Art 36 - Art 51 ) - Not Justiciable
But Constitution Expects the Government to work in the Light of DPSP
Broad Frameworks to Govt
Based on Gandhian, Socialistic & Liberal Policies
Food Security - SS Pending Accessible Basics Services New Jobs, Growth, Better Life Hindu Code Bills, 1950
Made Hindu Laws Uniform Across Nations
Tribal Panchsheel & Elwin
Nehru Envisaged Tribal Developments along their Indigenous Life
Tribal Development was Slow because
Own Apprehensions
Didn't knew about Contemporary World
No Knowledge of Judiciary
Not Educated
Dishonest Government Officials exploiting Tribals
B R Mehta & Panchayati Raj Committee, 1957
Especially in States of Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh
Educational Reforms
Summary
University Education Commission ( Radhakrishnan Committee) - 1948
Syndicate : Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy - Official Rep of Congress
Indira Wanted : V V Giri - asked VV to Contest Elections Independent
Ahmedabad Session - Indira Removed from Congress
INC Divided
INC “o” -
INC “r” -
Abolishment of Privy Purse
Tried to Abolish Privy Purse - Challenged in Supreme Court & Failed in Rajya Sabha
Only way to Abolish Privy Purse was by CAA
Abolishing Privy Purse she needed a Special majority in Parliament to Amend Right to Property it was a FR
Asked Giri to Dissolve Lok Sabha
Election of 1971
Announced Fresh Elections - Election 1971, Got thumping Majority
Abolition of Privy Purse 1970-71
24 25 26 - Amendments 1971
Bangla as National Language in Pakistan
East Pakistan - Awami League - Encouraged Linguistics Sentiments PM of Awami League - Shaikh Mujibur Rehman The then PM of West Pak - Yahya Khan Yahya Khan ordered Elections of Bangladesh to be Cancelled
Mukti Baahini Started Fighting Against Pakistani Army
West Pakistan asked US for Help
US Navy in India Ocean
Indira Gandhi signed Agreement with USSR for 20 Years
USSE Sent Nuclear Submarine in Indian Ocean
Now US coudnt help Wets Pakistan
Pak atatcked NWFP of India
INdian Navy destroyed all ports of Pakistan
Pakistan Army Surrendered - Historic
Zulfikar Ali Bhutto - Shimla Agreement - Fomalised Bangladesh in to a Free Country
Shimal Agrement COnverted - CFL. ( Cease Fire Line) → LOC ( Line of Control )
Popularity of Indira Gandhi
Operation Smiling Buddha & Happy Krishna
India wasn’t signatory of NTBT & NPT
World Powers threatened India with Sanctions
Problems
Nepotism - Sanjay Gandhi
J P Movement / Total Revolution - Jay Prakash Naryan - She used Art 356 to dissolve Govt in Guj & Bihar - Indira Hatao
George Fernandes - All India Railway Strike, 1974
Fear of Sanctions in India
Yom Kippur War & Oil Shock of 1973
Israel v/s Egypt + Syria
Egypt Attacked Israel - Israel was Victorious
Israel Surrounded by Islamic Countries
Historically backed by USA
Expert in Radar Technology
Muslim country in Middle East were angry with USA
Muslim Countries Tripled Oil Prices
We got Affected
Raj Narain Case, 1975
Rae Bareily Constituendy against Indira in Rae Bareli
Case against Indira in Allahabd High Court that she used her officr to win elections
High COurt said she coudnt contest elections for the nect 6 years
Indira Gandhi appealed in Supreme Court
SC relations with INdira Gandhi not Good AN Ray Promoted bypassing emegency
National Emergency, 1975-77 - Important Develpment during Emegency
Friends of Indira Deserted Her
Enemies United against her due to MISA - Maintainence of INternal Security Act
Sanjay Gandhi - Started Behaving as a Parallel Prime Minister. he started misusing his positins as Indira Gandhis Son
42nd CAA - Most Imp - Mini Constitution
Powers o Prewient was greatl curbed
Presidnt has to accept a bill, cant reject even only once '
Indira Gandhi Revoked Emergency, Annoucned new Elections
Janata Party is Elected, 1977 - First Non Congress Govt Formed
Janata Party - Coaliation Govebremtn
Morarji Desai ( 1977-79)
Deputy PM : Choudhary Charan Singh
Big on Promise, Low on Deliverance
43rd & 44th CAA, 1978 - to Nullify Efforts of Mini Constitution
Appointment of Backward Classes Commission (B P Mandal Commission), 1979
Recommendations Implemented by V P Singh
Indira Sahni Case
Shah Commission, 1977
One of the Biggest Mistake of Janata Commission
to probe into Emergency
Indira Gandhi was Imprisoned for a Day
She used this Opportunity to Reorganise her Party INC ( I )
Met Singh in Secret - If he withdrew support from Desai promising support of 180 MPS of Indira in Election 1977
Some Days Before he had to proove Majority, IG wothdrew Support, No One had Majoity
Singh was the only PM wh coudo address the Nation as a PM
Singh ( 1979-80) Indira Gandhi (1980-84)
This Tenure was Relatively Uneventful
Only Person she trusted was Sanjay Gandhi
Sanjay Gandhi died in a Flight Crash
Rajiv Gandhi was a Pilot in Air INdia
Raiv Gandhiw as brouht into politcs and made MP from Amehti
Two Important events
Operation Meghdoot
Operation Sun Down - Rejected
To Abduct Jarnail Singh Bhinderwale
Operation Blue Star - By Army
Operation Metal
Kill or Find Jarnail Singh Bhinderwale
Operation Shop
Comb for Sepraratist Thorughout Punjab
Operation Woodrose
Stop Cross Border Support from Pakistan
Amritsar
Armoured Behciles Sent
Godlen Tmeple was Damaged
as a Revenge IG was Assasinted by her pwn Sikh Bodyguards, Satwant & Beant Singh
When She Reached Hospital She was Alive, but she succumed
Anti Sikh Riots of Delhi (1984)
When the Big Tree Falls, The Earth Shakes
He became PM, He earned Sympathy of Indians
Announced Fresh Elections with Lok Sabha won with 400 Something Elections
Rajiv Gandhi, 1984-89
Negative Developmetn
Bhopal gas Tragedy, 1984
Gas Leak in Union Carbide Factory, MIC - 10,000 People Died
Lok Sabha Elections, 1984 & Massive Mandate
52nn Amemebedent - Anti Defection law, 1985 - Horse Trading Case
Shah Bano Case
Muslim Women - Protection on Divorce Act, 1986
Ram Mandir issue Politicised by BJP
Babur Mosques Mir Baqi Allegedly on Birthplace of Ram
Politicised by Jan Sangh and BJP
Its a Settled Dispute
Bofors Scam, 1987
Arms deal with High Calliber Gun called Howitzers
to be Purchased from A B Boforce from Sweden
Many Middlemen in this deal were Italians
Votoova Kroticohcy met Sonia Gandhi 20 times
Swedish Alleged that Heavy Corruptuon inclusing Rajiv Gandhi
V P Singh Defence Minster brought it to light
Also brought Submarine Schemes in Germany to Light
Rajiv Lost 1989 elections
Positive Develppments
National Policy of Education, 1986
5 Tehcnological Mission under Sam Pitroda
DILOT + D
Sam Pitroda from United States
MTNL - Era of Internet & Computers - IT Era Operation Flowers are Blooming, France-Albert Rene, 1986
India Started Opaying Big brother Role in Local International Ppolitics
Seychelles - was Facing Coup - RG helped Albert Rene tpo avoif this coup
Operation Rajiv, 1986
Bana Singh & bana Top
Siachin - Highest Battleground in world
Pakistan Established - Quaid Post
Rajiv Pande was Killed during this Operations
Indian Miltary Officer - Bana Singh captured the Top - Bana Top
Bana Singh was aawrded - Param Veer Chakra when he was alive
very difficult to do it
Operation Brasstacks, 1986
Largest Military Exerscie in the world after world war 2
Pakistan felt Threatened
Pak Threat they will retaliate a nuclear threats
BACKDROP OF BRASSTACKS & NUCLER
Delhi Decalration, 1986
Nuclear Powers of World should adhere to complete nuclear disarmament signed between Gorbachev & Rajib Gandhi by 2000
Speech in UNGA, 1988
Nuclear Disaramment Speech by 2010
Speech Title :
Operations Black Thunder 1, 1986 88
2 was a grand success Govt Declared it was illegal to use religou olaces for Poltiics
Indo Sri Lanka Accord & IPKF to Sri Lanka, 1987
Sinhlais & Tamils
Sinhalis Buddha - Attrocities by Them on Tamils
Tamils were treated as a Second Citizen
Indian Govt initaly sposnred LTTE & PRabhakaran
One poutn of time Cold war became strong Sr Lanka couldnt keep up
LTTE & Prabhakaran, ETHINICAL TAMIL ISSUE
Rajiv Gandhi Sent Arm to Sri Lanka
LTTE Surrendered by SL Govt gave the surrendered weapons to enemies of LTTE
Killed in Sriperumpudur - he was not the pm of India at that time - 7 people impriosned in jail - protetsing for their release
LTTE was hunted down by 2009
From Rajiv to NDA of 2014 - Indian Polity was dominated by NDA Government of BJP & Other Political Party
Nanavati Commission, 2000
Recommendations in 2005
Actual Post-Independence History
(1991 - Until Present)By Smriti Shah Mam
The Broad Flow Chart
Flow Chart Until 1984
Flow Chart from 1984
Nehruvian Era (1947-64)
Integration of Princely States
Flow Chart
Historical Premise
It has two parts: Accession and Integration
20th Feb 1947 PM Atlee declared that the power of India will be handed over to responsible hands not later than June 1948.
With respect to Princely states, it was declared that there will be a Lapse of Paramountcy and there would be status quo ante. Thus either the Princely States could join any of the dominions or remain independent. Many of the princely states like Hyderabad started contemplating independent status.
Lord Mountbatten organised a meeting with the Princely States known as the Chamber of Princes where he appealed to the Princes to sign accession documents
Mismanagement of funds by many rulers like that of Junagadh
External Pressure
Role of Mahatma Gandhi
The Emergence of Leadership
Praja Mandals had emerged in many States that were working for the right to self-determination.
Background
Suppression of people in the Princely States as they were autocratically ruled.
The economic burden on the people was high due to heavy taxation, however, the revenue collected was not used for the welfare of the people but instead was spent on the luxurious lifestyle of the rulers.
The rulers ignored the welfare of the people as they enjoyed immunity both with respect to internal and external threats
For Example : in the context of Junagadh, Nawab Mahabat Khan spent 3 lakh rupees for the marriage of 2 dogs
With the onset of the Non-Cooperation Movement, Mahatma Gandhi wanted the Princely States to ally with National Movement and hence made a proposal to give the full responsible government to the people of the State and promised not to interfere in their internal matters
It led to the awakening of the local people and the formation of Praja Mandals which was the beginning of the fight for democratic rights both against Princes and British rule. Awakening of people did compel many rulers to seek welfare for the people, for example, Baroda, Mysore, Rajkot, etc.
However, the precipitating factor was the Lapse of Paramountcy which stated rights of States which flow from the relationship to the Crown will no longer exist and all the rights surrendered by the States will be returned to them.
The Princely States were free to choose either of the dominions or remain independent and since many were contemplating independence so it created grounds for accession for the Princely States.
Special Cases (6)
Pre Independence period
Travancore
It was given this special status because of its high literacy rate, developed maritime trade, and high reserves of monazite sands
Travancore had the support of Jinnah, the Conservative Party of Britain, hence Diwan CP Ramaswamy Iyer declared on 11th June 1947 to remain independent
Local people revolted and Iyer was attacked by the people of the Kerala Socialist Party
30th July 1947 : Travancore declared to be part of the Indian Union
Bhopal
The Hindu majority area was ruled by Muslim ruler Hamidullah Khan
On the insistence of Lord Mountbatten agreed to accede to India
Jodhpur
Hindu majority area ruled by Hindu ruler
Due to the failure of talks with Jinnah, Jodhpur agreed to accede to India.
Post Independence period
Junagarh
Small state on the coast of Saurashtra surrounded by Indian territory
On the 15th of August, Nawab Mahabat Khan decided to accede to Pakistan, the local population revolted and a provincial government was formed under Samaldas Gandhi in Bombay
On 30th September, Pakistan accepted the accession.
However, as a result of popular agitation, Nawab ran to Karachi and in the absence of any assistance from Pakistan, Diwan(Shah Nawaz Bhutto) wrote a letter to the Indian government to take over the administration of Junagadh
It was followed by a Plebiscite which led to the merger of Junagadh with India
Hyderabad
Largest Princely State governed by Meer Osman Ali
Landlocked and self-sufficient in food cotton, coal, cement, etc
85% population was Hindu, however, dominated by Muslims in Army, Police and Civil Services
Nizam wanted to establish a Muslim dominated state
There were three forces acting at that time:
Hyderbad State Congress
which wanted a responsible government in Hyderbad
Communist Party of Telangana
which wanted to preserve the rights of landless peasants
Council of Union of Muslims (Majlis E Ittehadul Muslimeen)
which wanted to preserve the hegemony of Muslims
Nizam deployed a paramilitary task force known as Razakars under Qasim Rizvi to stop these uprisings
Communal Holocaust was carried out by Razakars. Hyderabad clearly told Indian leadership that the freedom of Hyderbad is non-negotiable
In April 1948, Mountbatten wrote a letter and Hyderabad was allowed to make laws, and maintain force. However, only on the grounds of international emergency Indian forces will enter. Nizam agreed to it, however, later he backtracked
13th of September, 1948 Operation caterpillar/polo/police action was launched and 17th of September Mir Osman Ali agreed to accede to India
Razakars were banned and Qasim Rizvi was arrested
Kashmir Issue
At the time of independence, Jammu and Kashmir comprised 5 regions namely Jammu, Valley of Kashmir, Ladakh, Gilgit and Baltistan
On the 15th of August, Maharaja Harisingh signed a standstill agreement with Pakistan. However, India did not
It created apprehension among the Pakistan forces. As a result, they planned a tribal invasion
22nd of October, 1947, Pakistan broke the standstill agreement. The infiltration started from Muzaffarabad. The plan was to capture Srinagar
Due to the Poonch crisis (unhappy with rule of Maharaja), the Muslims of Poonch rebelled against the Maharaja and joined these tribal infiltrators.
On reaching Baramullah which was just 54 km from Srinagar, Maharaja Harisigh requested Indian leadership for support.
However, Lord Mountbatten insisted on signing the instrument of accession and hence on the 26th of October, 1947, the instrument of accession was signed
There was a massacre in Baramullah. As a result, tribals could not reach Srinagar and Indian Army had encircled Srinagar by that time
Very quickly the Army recaptured Baramullah, Mahuta and Uri
Jinnah was not happy with the situation and wanted to send the Army, however, the British officer Aukenlake refused. Later Pakistan did send the Army and captured the present-day Pakistan Occupied Kashmir(PoK)
However, self-admitted by Jawahar Lal Nehru that it was a mistake to take the Kashmir issue to United Nations
When the case was presented in such a manner that instead of viewing the issue as an internal matter of Jammu and Kashmir, it was presented that Kashmir is an unsettled business of partition between India and Pakistan
In February 1949, the Karachi agreement was signed and a ceasefire line was created extending till NJ9842
Overall challenges with respect to Integration
There were multiple problems in the integration process of the Princely States
There were wide variations in terms of size and status
For Example: on one hand, we have the massive Princely States like Kashmir, Hyderabad, etc whereas, on the other hand, there was Banka Pahari with a total area of 5 square miles. The larger states had their own Railways, currencies and stamps, etc. This variation created administrative challenges with respect to integration
Issue of sovereignty
This dealt with the issues associated with the Lapse of Paramountcy
Variation with respect to income, the pace of modernisation and industrialisation
For Example : Gwalior, Cochin, and Baroda were industrially and commercially advanced while others were very backward
No uniformity in the rights, treaty obligations and privileges granted to different rulers by the British
For Example : Nizam of Hyderbad had signed a treaty with Britishers as an ally against Mysore
Princely Privileges
In order to ensure complete integration of Princely States, two articles were inserted in the Constitution:
Articel 291
Privy Purse →8.5% from annual revenue of state to be given to princes
Articel 262
retaining titles, Palaces, etc by the Princes
Points of Contention
The extent of privileges to be retained, the nature of compensation, hierarchy among the Princes, and privy purse became the points of contention
The issue of view of a ruler vs people's will
For Example: the case of Junagadh
Difficulty in the integration of border states
For Example : incidences of numerous concessions offered to Jodhpur, Jaiselmer by Pakistan
Religious inclination of rulers towards Pakistan
For Example: Mahabat Khan, Hamidullah Khan, Nawab Osman Ali
Diversity with respect to language, culture, levels of economic development, etc
For Example: J&K was culturally heterogeneous
Isolation from the Indian freedom movement
Question: Assess the main administrative issues and socio-cultural problems in the integration process of Princely States (10 Marks - UPSC 2021)Question: Briefly analyse the role of Lord Mountbatten in maintaining the territorial integrity of India.Question: Critically examine the factors responsible for the accession of Princely States.Question: Discuss the immediate challenges faced by India in the process of nation-building and mention the ways in which these challenges were addressed in the first few decades post-independence
Integration of Princely States
Official Language Issue
Tribal Consolidation
Re Organisation of States on the basis of Language
Tribal Consolidation
Flow Chart
Who are Tribes?
Homogeneous
Unstratified
Isolated
Unique culture
Distinct means of livelihood
Shyness of contact
Issues Confronted by Tribes (3 Phases)
Pre-Colonial
It refers to the period which was prior to the advent of the Britishers
Tribal communities remained isolated from the mainstream in their distant habitats
During this phase, there was no interference in their life, hence the problems were not external but internal
For Example: Hardship of life due to difficult terrain, problems associated with natural calamities, superstitious practices, nature of economic activities such as hunting and gathering
Colonial Phase
With the arrival of the British, there was a radical transformation as their isolation was eroded with the penetration of outside forces like money lenders, revenue farmers, etc
They invaded their territories and disrupted their traditional lives
They were lured into taking loans, as a result, they fell into a debt trap. this resulted in the loss of land to outsiders and as a result, they were reduced to the status of landless labourers, tenants and sharecroppers
Colonialism also transformed tribal relations with the forest, that is to conserve forest or to facilitate their commercial exploitation various forest laws were passed that prohibited shifting cultivation and restricted the use of forest and forest produce
The industrial activities of the Britishers, for example, mining, and the construction of railways also affected the tribal communities as most of it was carried out in hilly areas or forests
The entry of Christian missionaries also resulted in the loss of indigenous faith and distinct identity
With a subjective understanding of objective reality, it resulted in various tribal revolts.
Post-Independence Policies
The policy of Isolation (Verrier Elwin)
According to Verrier Elwin, tribals are special people who must be kept in separation from the rest of the society in order to preserve and conserve their ethnic identity, tribal social structure and culture, etc. However, this policy of isolation was looked upon as a proposal that will not tribal people to utilise the resources of modern knowledge and improve their condition of life
The policy of Assimilation (GS Ghurye - Govind Sadashiv Ghurye)
According to GS Ghurye, tribes are nothing but backward Hindus, hence, they need to be brought within the fold of mainstream society
The policy of Integration (Panchsheel Policy for Tribals)
"The tribals need to progress but they need to progress in their own ways"- Jawaharlal Nehr
Panchsheel Policy for tribals is as follows :
The tribals should be allowed to develop their own genius
Tribal rights in land and forest should be respected
Tribals should be trained to undertake administration and development without too many outsiders being inducted
Tribal development should be undertaken without disturbing the tribal socio-cultural milieu
The index of tribal development should be the quality of life rather than the money spent.
Policies/efforts with respect to tribals
Constitutional
Definition: A-366, A-342
Educational and empowerment: A-15,16, 46, 335
Political empowerment: A-330, 332, 243D, 243T
Administrative convenience: 5th and 6th schedule
Cultural Provisions: A-29, 30
Agency: A-338A
Statutory Conventions
Forest Right Act
PESA (Panchayat Extension of Scheduled Areas)
Prevention of Atrocities Act (SC/ST)
Land Acquisition
Resettlement and Rehabilitation (LARR)
Schemes
TRIFED
ERMS - Eklavaya Residential Model School
Swasthya Portal
Question : Enumerate the constitutional provisions with respect to tribal welfare and rightsQuestion : Discuss any two legal safeguards with respect to tribalsLacunae in Tribal Policy
Weak execution of the provisions, the ineffectiveness of the State government in administering the policies
Misappropriation of funds allotted for tribal welfare
Lack of trained administrative personnel with respect to tribal governance
Lack of awareness among tribes with respect to their rights and entitlements
Evasion of laws that were meant to prevent the loss of land to the outsiders
Development led displacement policies of the government
Neglect of tribal education in mother tongue
Retreatment of tribals in the inaccessible stretches leading to ineffective service delivery.
Xaxa committee observations on tribal communities of India:
Virginius Xaxa had termed the policy of government in the context of mainland tribals(not the northeast) as aggressive assimilation instead of integration
Comparing the status of tribals in the northeast and mainland India Xaxa said that the 5th schedule did not provide any space for the tribals to learn governance
Incidences of land alienation, displacement, and loss of access to natural resources have been maximum among the tribals of the mainland
He observed that between 1950 and 1990, 21 million people were displaced due to government policies of development of which 45% of the displaced were tribals. Post 1991 displacement further got aggravated
One size fits all approach failed to take note of the emergence of the class elements within the tribes
For Example : the policy of reservation did provide them with the opportunity for social mobility. However, it resulted in an increase in economic inequality within tribes as a small section cornered all the benefits
The government policies have also failed due to a lack of proper evaluation, proper data collection and plugging in the loopholes
Dhebhar Committee (1973)
It found that PVTG(Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups) were the most backward within the tribes.
Factors considered for identifying the PVTGs
Low level of literacy
Primitive level of technology
The population is either stagnant or declining
Way Forward (According to Xaxa Committee)
Xaxa committee was established in 2013 to study the socio-economic health and education status of tribals.
It suggested policy initiatives and interventions for tribal upliftment
Gram Sabha's power needs to be increased with respect to land alienation
Unused land should be acquired and used for tribal rehabilitation
On the lines of Andhra Pradesh, mining rights should be given to tribal cooperatives
Instead of constructing large dams, small-sized water harvesting structures should be created in order to address the problem of submergence and displacement
Impose penalties on the officials for delayed implementation of FRA or PESA
Appoint a judicial committee to investigate Naxal cases, registered against tribals
Improve the accessibility to tribal areas.
Question: Discuss the issue of integration and autonomy with respect to tribals in India. (150 words/10 marks)Question: Despite government efforts, tribal progress has remained dismal. Critically examine the factors responsible(150 words / 10 marks)
India China War 1962
Background 1 : NAM (Non Allignment Movement)
Concept
It is not just about neutrality but the freedom to decide on every issue on the basis of its merit
Objectives
Four Fold Objective of NAM
World Peace
To promote growth and development
To fight injustice and exploitation
To face challenges confronted by the world
Rationale
After World War 2, the world was divided into 2 power blocs, newly independent nations of Asia and Africa will gain nothing by allying with any power block
Hence, NAM symbolises the struggle of nations to ensure sovereignty and independence
Evolution of NAM
Korean War, 1947-53
India voted against major powers in the UN to prevent the entry of outside powers in conflict. India was also made the chair of the Neutral Nations Repatriation commission
India Voted
First Resolution - Yes → North Korea is Agressor
Second Resolution - Abstain → Joint Force against North Korea
Third Resolution - No → China is Aggressor
Bandung Conference, 1954
India China friendship treaty was signed and it was decided that they will be governed in their bilateral relations on the basis of Panchsheel principles(mutual respect, Non-interference, non-aggression, mutual benefit, peaceful coexistence)
It was the1st Afro-Asian conference to promote economic and cultural cooperation
Suez Canal Crisis, 1956
with respect to the crisis at the London conference India proposed a solution in the context of
control of Egypt over the Suez canal and in case of any dispute how it will be resolved peacefully. India provided a solution here
Hungary Conflict, 1956
When the rebellion in Hungary was crushed by the Soviets, Indian leadership criticised the Soviets and withstood considerable pressure despite the fact that Russia's support was very significant with respect to the Kashmir issue
Congo Conflict, 1960
India played an important role in maintaining the integrity and independence of Congo. India's proactive stand resulted in a ceasefire and the central government's authority was restored.
Belgrade Conference, 1961
Finally at Belgrade conference, in 1961 NAM got political recognised
NAM Got official political recognition on global platform
Backgorund 2 : Border Dilemma between India & China
Pre Indpendent China Scenario
Aksai Chin Context (Ladakh)
Initially under Sikh Confederacy
Anglo Sikh War - Anglo Won
Two Lines
Johnson Line - Recognised by India (British India)
Mcartney - Macdonald Line - Recognised by China
Hence Here India thought that Aksai Chin is theres and China thought Aksai Chin is theres
NEFA - North East Fronter Agency
McMahon Line - created as a part of Shimla Agreement in 1914
1907 - According to Anglo Russian Convention → Any treaty or agreement with Tibet has to be in consultation with China
Parties in deciding border
China
Tibet
Britain
India
Both
India (believed that many parts north of McMahon Line should belong to India, like the traditonal Himalayas of India) → India still recognised it but wasnt happy with it
China (believed that many parts of china werent recognised by McMahon Line) → China never recognised McMahon Line
1921 - Anglo Russian Convention was revoked → Meaning any convention with Tibet doesnt need approval of China
Post Independent China Scenario
India was the first to recognise the People's Republic of China(PRC) in 1949.
China and India shared a common experience of exploitation due to colonialism, poverty and hunger, etc.
India also pressed for China's permanent seat at UNSC
1950
China annexed Tibet
1952-53
KM Panniker visited China
Panchsheel Principles laid down. Hindi Chini Bhai Bhai started
1956
Dalai Lama asked for refuge in India which was refused by India
1957
There was news that a highway was being constructed from Xinjiang to Tibet passing through Aksai Chin(Aksai Chin was part of India and a direct challenge to India's sovereignty)
1959
Dalai Lama was given refuge but it was declared that he could not form a government in exile in India
Background 3 : Precipitating Factor (Failure of Leap Forward Policy)
It was the forward policy by both India and China around MacMohan Line that led to the war.
Forward Policy of China - Domestic Compulsion
There was the failure of the Great Leap forward Policy of China through which it wanted to bring economic and social changes to the agrarian Chinese Economy
Forward Policy of India
Pushing thy forces north of recognised border
Consequences
The war continue for one month and concluded with declaration of unilateral ceasefire
China attacked two fronts- Aksai Chin and NEFA and occupies large portions
China declares a unilateral ceasefire on 20th October 1962. It returned to the NEFA region however the Aksai Chin remained occupied by China
No treaty was signed
Analysis
It was a blow to India's self-respect
The irony was the attack was made by a socialist country and not capitalists.
Nehru faced a no-confidence motion for the very first time
The 5-year plan was badly affected.
Nehru was blamed for not being able to guard the nation's interest and too much political interference in military activities was criticised. However, many believed that the cause of the war was more related to china's compulsions
For Example:
the growing significance of India in global politics
declining Soviet-China relations
failure of the Great Leap Forward
Question: USA had criticised NAM as immoral neutrality. In this context, discuss the concept of NAM, its objectives and its emergence.Question: Non-alignment is the freedom to decide on every issue on its merit. In the light of this statement, examine how India played an active part in international affairs during the Nehruvian eraQuestion: Discuss the factors which created grounds for the 1962 India-China war.
Linguistic Reorganisation (From Society)Official Language Issue (From Society)
Shashtri Ji's Era (1964-66)
Issues confronting Indian Governance
Economic Crisis
War in 1962 led to the diversion of resources, leading to disruption of Five-year Plans, and lack of opportunities to ensure socio-economic development.
Consecutive years of drought resulted in a decline in agricultural production, food shortage, inflation, and poverty
Law and Order Crisis
It emanated from the economic crisis
It resulted in protest, movements, bandh and agitation, etc
Political Crisis
When leadership is not able to provide requisite solutions to the problems
Leadership is being questioned by own party members
Social Crisis
The official language issue was still not resolved
Punjab state issues(demands for the creation of a separate Punjab)
Agricultural Crisis
To deal with this, Shashtiji suggested two measures to the nation
Fasting once a week
Kitchen garden
grow fruits and vegetables on whatever land is available to you
India Pakistan War, 1965
Background
Presence of dissident forces in Kashmir
For Example: Sheikh Abdullah
The impression among the forces is that central leadership is weak
Perception of Pakistani Leadership
Pakistan believed that India had not yet come to terms with the 1962 defeat
Pakistan believed that India does not possess sophisticated weapons
In 1963, Pakistan ceded Shaksgam Valley to China, it was hopeful that China will come to its aid in case of war with India
Precipitating Factor
Pakistan attacked Rann of Katch
It gave the wrong signal to Pakistan that India was not ready for war. India was slow to respond as Rann of Katch was difficult terrain, but India was ready for a war against Pakistan.
Britain (Harold Wilson) intervened and asked both the parties to go for a ceasefire.
The Course of War
Operation Gibraltar
Pakistan launched Operation Gibraltar. Under this, the purpose was to create a Pro Pak uprising and create a revolutionary fervour so as to disintegrate Kashmir from India, however, that never happened.
Operation Grandslam (September 1965)
As a part of operation Grandslam Pakistan forces decided to attack Akhnoor so that all the supply and communication to the forces of India can be cut.
To contain this attack by Pakistan, the leadership decided to open the second front towards Punjab and as a result, Pakistan forces were diverted and operation Grandslam failed.
India successfully captured 1920 sq km of territory in Pakistan including the strategic location of Haji Pir. Neither USA nor China intervened.
Although Russia didn't explicitly support India, it did convey that in case India had to fight on two fronts, Russia will support India.
The war continued for 22 days, however, with Russian intervention both parties agreed to declare a ceasefire.
It was followed by Tashkent Agreement
Tashkent Agreement
It was a peace agreement signed between India and Pakistan to resolve the war of 1965.
Status quo ante will prevail with respect to territories.
Neither of the countries will interfere in the internal matters of each and would discourage toxic propaganda against each other.
The orderly transfer of prisoners of war, work towards improving bilateral relations,
Restore trade and economic relations as before.
Analysis
India agreed to unfavourable terms as the other option would have been the resumption of a mutually disastrous war and losing the support of Russia on the Kashmir issue.
Evolution of Jai Jawan Jai Kisan slogan
Factors leading to the decline in agricultural productivity:
Consecutive years of drought.
Diversion of resources due to war.
Irrigation facility not well developed.
Dependence on the USA for import of food grains under the PL-480 programme
Although the USA was not directly involved in the war, it pressurised India into declaring a ceasefire(1965 war).
Initially, when India refused, the USA suspended the PL 480 programme which further worsened the agricultural crisis.
Thus, the concepts of Kitchen Garden and fasting once a week were put forward by Shashtriji.
Owing to the agricultural challenges and the challenges being faced by India at Border, Shashtriji in a rally gave the slogan"Jai Jawan Jai Kisan".
Question: Discuss the reasons which led to the evolution of the slogan Jai Jawan Jai Kisan. (10 Marks, UPSC 2013)Question: Although Pakistan believed that it could succeed against India in a short, local war, however, India registered real gains. Discuss in the context of the 1965 war. (10 marks)
Indira Gandhi's Era (1966-84)
Phase 1 → 1966-69
Coalition Politics - 1967 Elections
Congress lost the mandate, character and motivation as a Party of social and institutional changed
There was large scale disenchantment among the people due to incidences of corruption
There was frustration among people due to a lack of alternatives
Factionalism had engulfed the Congress party which was reflected in the distribution of tickets
As a result, the election outcomes were very dramatic
For Example: for the very first time, Congress lost the majority in 8 States
The first wave of coalition emerged at the State level.
This was the period of defection politics and horse-trading.
For Example: from 1967 to 70: the government changed 4 times in Bihar and 7 times in UP
Famous Slogan : “Aaya Ram, Gaya Ram”
Even the princes of Princely States defected from Congress.
Defection by rich and middle peasants:
The rich and middle peasants defected because they felt that their social and economic status will get threatened due to the policies of Congress.
Congress Split, 1969
Struggle within Course (not just power struggle but also ideological)
The Congress split into:
Congress(O - Organisation): Control of Syndicates
Congress(R - Requisitonist): Control of Indira Gandhi
Indira Gandhi continued to remain in power
Abolition of privy purse via 24th Amendment Bill, it was passed in LS but not in RS
She made VV Giri pass it as an ordinance, however, it was declared unconstitutional by SC in the famous N Palkhiwala case
Indira Gandhi decided to dissolve the LS in 1971
There was formed a grand alliance between Congress(O), Jan Sangh, Swatantra Party (by Raja Gopal Chari) and Samyukta Socialist Party (by Ram Manohar Lohia). They gave the slogan of "Indira Hatao"
Indira Gandhi replied with the slogan in "Gareebi Hatao"
In the 1971 general elections, Indira Gandhi came to power with an absolute majority
Phase 2 → 1969-73
Bangladesh Liberation War, 1971
Introduction
There were total 313 seats in pakistan. Awami League was lead by Sheikh Mujibur Rehman from Bangladesh. Awami League won 167/169 (majority). Subjetive Realisation of Objective Reality for East Pakistan
India's Response
There was a strong wave of sympathy, however, India did not want to strengthen Pakistan's propaganda that the entire movement in East Pakistan for autonomy is India's conspiracy
Hence, India wanted to educate international opinion on the cause of Bangladesh and the position of India with respect to the refugee burden
India wanted winters to set in making it impossible for China to intervene
It was believed that from April onwards, there will be strong rainfall in East Pakistan and since it's quite unknown and difficult terrain, it will be difficult for us to fight
We wanted explicit support from Russia and hence decided to sign a friendship treaty of peace and cooperation
There was a force called Mukti Vahini fighting against West Pakistan forces in East Pakistan. We wanted to train them under operation Jackpot so that they can fight their own battle.
Lastly, we wanted Pakistan to make the first attack so that they would be referred to as the initial aggressor.
On the 3rd of December 1971, Pakistan attacked India as a result we immediately recognised Bangladesh and launched the counterattack.
Moreover, India imposed an air blockade in the Indian airspace so as to cut off all the supplies.
The USA didn't want to see humble Pakistan. Hence, it initiated two resolutions
one with respect to the ceasefire
mutual withdrawal of armies
However, the Soviets vetoed both resolutions.
China didn't want to offend Russia, hence restrained from any interference
Due to increasing pressure, the USA decided to use Gunboat Diplomacy (use of naval forces to intimidate other party) to intimidate India.
The 7th fleet of the USA was launched to intimidate India but Russia also sent its 10th operating fleet
This is how Indian forces bought time and finally, under the pressure, West Pakistan forces stationed in East Pakistan agreed to surrender
On 16th December 1971, the public surrender of Pakistan soldiers on the Dhaka Racecourse took place
Analysis
It was a personal gain for Indira Gandhi
The refugee problem got resolved
India regained its lost pride and self-respect. It demonstrated the strength of Indian secularism. It was a big blow to the two-nation theory
India agreed to return Pakistani territories it has occupied except for some strategic positions.
Pakistan agreed to respect LoC in Kashmir and also that the two countries will settle their disputes through bilateral negotiations without external interventions.
India agreed to return the prisoners of war provided Pakistan recognised Bangladesh. Pakistan agreed to this
Question : Critically examine the compulsions which prompted India to play a decisive role in the emergence of Bangladesh. (UPSC 2013,10 marks)
Phase 3 → 1973-77
Flow Chart - Continued Economic Crisis
Flow Chart - Continue Global Oil Crisis
Global oil crisis →
prices of petrol, diesel increased, disenchantment among the middle class →
All India Railway strike(largest strike in the history of India) to protest against the price rise which was as high as 22%
Thus the situation of unrest was getting created due to price rises and corruption
Background & Phase of J P Movement
Gujarat Unrest
The unrest was carried out by the students of the university due to corruption and price rise.
Demand: To suspend assembly and conduct fresh elections
Bihar Unrest & JP Movement
With respect to Bihar unrest there were two departures wrt Gujarat :
Jayprakash Narayan provided the leadership
Indira Gandhi refused to dissolve the assembly
As a result, JP Narayan decided to take the protest on a Pan India basis and famously known as JP Movement
The OBJECTIVE of JP Movement was
To end corruption
To defend democracy against the authoritarian leadership of Indira Gandhi
The IDEOLOGY was
"Total Revolution" to do away with the political system which has compelled everyone to go corrupt
The DEMAND was
The government should resign and power should be given in hands of the public
The people who participated were the students, the middle class and opposition parties, etc → Social Constituency
In the first phase of the movement, it lost its fervour because the students could not sustain the movement and had to go back to their colleges
The twist in the tale - Allahabad High Court Judgement
It declared Indira Gandhi's holding of the Prime Ministerial position as unconstitutional since she had resorted to electoral malpractices
On 25th June 1975, JP Narayan conducted a rally in Delhi where he announced that on 29th of June 1975, we will carry out a Civil Disobedience Movement in which we will gherao PM Office and compel the government to resign
Also, an appeal was made to the police, army, bureaucrats not to adhere to the dictates of Indira Gandhi as her election was unconstitutional
As a result, the Civil Disobedience movement was carried out on the 26th of January 1975
Critical analysis of JP Narayan Movement:
Although the intention of the movement was good i.e to end corruption and defend democracy
However, It has been criticised with respect to its composition, action and ideology
All opposition parties having different ideologies participated in the movement with the common objective to topple the government
The leadership talked about total revolution and partyless democracy which was feared that it might encourage distrust towards the democratic institutions
The agitational methods adopted were also undemocratic and the only purpose of the movement in the later phase was reduced to the removal of congress
Question: Critically Examine JP Movement with respect to Its ideology, character and mandate
Emergency Period
Rationale of Emergency (Acc to Indira Gandhi)
India's stability, security, integrity and democracy were under threat due to the disruptive character of the JP Movement
Opposition was accused to incite police, bureaucrats, named forces to rebel
Due to prolong protest, it was constructing government measures to implement policies for socio-economic development
There was a constant threat of external intervention with an intention to disrupt the social harmony in India or destabilise India
Some Primary Events of IG Emergency were
The arrest of main leaders
Suspension of Fundamental Rights, Civil Liberties
Banning of certain organisations like CPI (ML)
Press was censured
Federal provisions of the Supreme Court were suspended
42nd Amendment Act - the power of the Judiciary was curtailed
In the initial phase of the emergency, there was an acceptance among the public with respect to the emergency due to the following reasons:
Action against the anti-social elements
Return to normal and orderly life
The arrest was minimal
Improvement in the economy due to adequate rainfall
Agricultural productivity improved
Efficiency in the administration
20 point programme for socio-economic developmnet of poor
provision of tax evasion
prevent concentration of wealth
robust implementation of land ceiling
a moratorium on debt
redistribution of surplus land among landless
eradicate bonded labour
reduction in prices
However, in the later stages, the people became disillusioned. The reasons were :
Economic growth could not be sustained
Agricultural output declined
Anti-Social elements resumed their acts
Congress failed to create the new agencies of social change
Abuse of power by police, bureaucrats and political leadership
Loss of trust over censored press
Fear of authoritarianism
Development of an extra-constitutional centre of power under Sanjay Gandhi
Two famous inactivities of that time were (Primarily by Sanjay Gandhi)
Sterilization - In the Name of Family Planning
Demolition of Slums - In the Name of Beautification of Cities
Revoking of Emergency & Congress(I) split
Emergency was revoked by Indira Gandhi and Elections were annoucned. For the first time, congress lost at the centre post independence
Eventually, Congress (R) was bifurcated into
Congress (U)
Congress (I) - Congress of Indira
Janta Party at Centre
And a New Party was formed called as Janta Party (1977), which came to power which consisted of
Congress (o)
Jan Sangh
Samyukta Social Party
Bhartiya Lok Dal
Bhartiya Janta Party was formed by the split from the Janta Party in 1980’s
When Janta Party came to power, they had certain objectives
For Example:
emergency and its excesses
to look into the matter of forced sterilization
restriction of civil liberties
Hence, Janta Party took some steps. For Example
passing of 44th Amendment Act
restoring Fundamental rights
civil liberties
freedom of the press
liberal democracy
However, it was confronted with various issues
Issues confronted by Janta Party were
Non-performance in an administration
Failure in implementation of developmental policies and realisation of social justice
Disintegration of coalition
Failure to address rising social tensions in rural areas due to the conflict between the have's and have nots
Janta Party was also criticised by the masses as they viewed her persecution (setting up of Shah Commission not as an act of Justice but as an act to disgrace her)
Question : wrt emergency in 1975 discuss the response amongst the masses. Also, highlight why it was considered the dark period of Indian Democracy
Phase 4 → 1980-84
Assam Crisis (1979-85)
Background
Underdevelopment of Assam
Assamese people believed unfair treatment is being meted out to them by the centre in terms of allocation of funds, location of industries and other economic enterprises
Control of its economy and resources by outsiders
Neglect of the overall developmnet of Assam resulted into series of protest movements
Historical Factor
Since the colonial period, many Bengalis have settled in Assam
Occupied position in Governmnet services. Higher posts in both public and private sector
Assamese speaking youth felt disadvantages in the context of jobs
The predominance of Bengalis post threat to Assamese language and culture
It resulted in the feeling of relative deprivation
This entire period of the 1950s was marked by the movement to make Assamese the sole official language and medium of instruction in schools and colleges
Later State Assembly passed Assam's Official Langauge Act, 1961
Demand of Hill Tribes
It was followed by the demand by Hill Tribes to separate from Assam
Assamese later felt that the development and consolidation of the wider Assamese identity by gradual assimilation of the Assamese tribe was prevented by the government's decision to separate tribal areas from Assam and create small states
Illegal Migration from Bangladesh
The demographic profile of Assam underwent a change due to large scale illegal migration from Bangladesh
Precipitating Factor
The issue of migration surfaced in 1979 when it became clear that large illegal migrants have become registered voters in Assam
ULFA also came into existence in 1979
So the movement was carried out by the All Assam Student's Union (AASU) and Asom Jan Sangram Parishad who urged the Governmnet to
seal the border
identify illegal migrants on the voter's list
deport them back
only then the elections will take place
The Course of Crisis (1979-85)
Political instability
President's Rule
Ethnic Violence
Protest, Agitation and Conflict
Hence it led to the signing of the Assam Accord
Assam Accord
All the foreigners who entered before or between 1951-61 were to be given full citizenship
Those who entered between 1961-71, will be given citizenship rights but voting rights will be denied for 10 years
However, those who have entered after 1971 will be deported back
The package of economic developmnet of Assam was announced which had the provision for IIT, Oil refinery, paper mill, etc
The central government agreed to provide Legislative and Administrative safeguards to protect the cultural, social, linguistic identity and heritage of the Assamese People
Question : The issues that gave rise to Assam movement in 1979 were a combination of cultural pride and economic backwardness. Explain.
Punjab Crisis (1984)
Sample Question
In the context of the Punjab crisis, it can be argued that language, religion, and regionalism combined into an explosive situation which the political elites struggled to contain. Examine
Background
1947-1966
After the 10th Guru, the tradition of Gurus among the Sikh community ended and Guru Granth Sahib was given the utmost reverence
Sikh shrines remained under the control of corrupt mahants as a result some young Sikhs started the movement against their hegemony known as Akalis
They wanted the shrines to be managed by the democratically elected representative body which later came into existence known as Shiromani Gurudwara Prabandhak Committee(1925)
Akalis asserted religion and politics could not be separated as the two are essentially combined in Sikhism
1953, All India Akali Conference headed by Master Tara Singh
They put forward the demand for a separate Punjab state.
However, the state reorganisation commission in 1956 denied the linguistic separation of state
1966
However, in 1966 when Fateh Singh gave the assurance that the demand is linguistic and not communal, major political and social organisations started demanding Hindi speaking state, and Punjab was created
After Creation of Punjab it was found that
60% were Sikh and rest were hindus and among the sikhs 25% were Dalit converts remaining were upper-caste Sikhs
However, post-1966 acquiring power through democratic means was becoming a challenge for Akali Dal.
Hence in 1973, Anantpur Sahib Resolution was put forward:
45 demands were put forward in 1975, out of which some are
Transfer of Chandigarh to Punjab
More representation of Sikhs in the Indian Army
Punjabi as a second language in neighbouring state
Industrialisation, etc
Post 1980’s
However, When in the 1980s election, the majority of the population in Punjab rejected their politics and ideology they started using religion as a mobilising tool
Emergence of Jarnail Singh Bhinderwala in Punjab
Initially, he was used by Congress to undercut Akalis
However, later he gave a call for separation and armed struggle against the Indian state
He was fighting for political and ideological hegemony over the people of Punjab
Akali leadership did condemn the violence.
However, the situation was becoming out of control
There was a complete failure of law and order machinery.
On the 3rd of June 1984 Operation Blue Starwas launched which was followed by the assassination of Indira Gandhi on the 31st of October which was followed by Anti-Sikh Riots
Lessons Learnt
The lessons learnt Communalism needs to be confronted both politically and ideologically
No amount of popular will and opposition can defeat violence on its own
Moderated cannot be expected to fight extreme communalism despite political differences as they share the common communal ideology
Rajiv Gandhi's Period (1984-1991)
Summary of Issues
Pre-1990s
Government's steps in various fields
Shah Bano case
Bofors
Sri Lankan Civil war
Post-1990s
Pokhran
Kargil war
A brief reference to VP Singh's government
Miscellaneous
Land Reforms
Social impact of Green Revolution
Social movements
Sri Lankan Civil War
Background
During British Period, around 10 Lak Tamil Labours were taken to Sri Lanka to work on the Plantations for approximately 100 years, these Tamilians laboured for the prosperity of Sri Lanka.
However, When Sri Lanka got independence, It was followed by:
Ceylon Citizenship Act
Sinhala Only Act
Which declared Sinhala as the only official language
Buddhism declared as the State Religion
Ban on import of Tamil Literature
The policy of industrialisation
With the emergence of LTTE (Liberation Tigers of Tamil Elum), there was the subjective realisation of objective reality
However, the precipitating factor was operation liberation launched in 1987 by Sri Lankan government on Jaffna
Under the pressure from South, the Indian government started providing all the necessities to the people in Jaffna
Indo Sri Lanka Accord
It was followed by the Accord between Jayawardne and Rajiv Gandhi-Indo-Sri Lanka Accord, which said
Northern and Eastern Province would be merged into a single province
With substantial devolution of power, LTTE would be dissolved and arms will be surrendered
Indian army would come to the aid of Sri Lanka if required
Over All Analysis
However, the accord failed as LTTE refused to surrender
The Indian government had to send a peacekeeping force but got involved in a messy situation as they were fighting against Tamilians
However, later IPKF (Indian Peace Keeping Force) was withdrawn in a phased manner followed by the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi in 1991
Question : Briefly discuss the issues which led to rise of ethnic insurgency in Sri Lanka in 1980. To what extent Indo-Sri Lanka accord help to resolve them (150 marks/10 marks)
Kargil War (Diagram)
They signed Lahore Declaration which that is peaceful negotiation with respect to Kashmir issues.
The first operation launched by Pakistan was operation Badr:
Their aim was to capture all the strategic posts which bring NH1D within their artillery range
NH1D connects Srinagar to Leh passing through Kargil.
They wanted Indian forces to withdrew from Siachen and forcing India to negotiate a settlement on the Kashmir issue.
As Pakistan Believed that tension in the region would internationalise the issue and will help them in securing speedy solutions
The second aspect of the war was Indian leadership discovering the infiltration and mobilising the forces to respond post which a major battle was fought which extended for two months
On 26th July, operation Vijay was declared a success.
Land Reforms (Handout)
Social Movements in Post Independence (Handout)
Objective, Social Constitunect, Result & Over All Analysis of these Movements
