Battles of India Before Independence & Building of Kashi Vishwanath Temple
Battle of 10 Kings - First Battle
Battle of Imphal - Last Battle
Kashi Vishwanath Temple was made by 17 Kings
These 17 Temples were Chauhan Rulers made this Temples
Muslim Governor Abolished Temple
Todar Mal built the Temple with the Permission of Akbar
Aurangzeb Destroyed it
Ahilya Bai Holkar Re-Built it again
Sources
Class Notes
Reference - Indra Dev and Arjun Dev from 1900
Handout - Can Ignore if you are thorough with Class Notes and Reference
Time Line is from 1750 AD to 1991 AD. Post 1991 AD is in ambit of International Relations
Time Line of World History (1750 AD- 1991 AD)
Basic European Map
The UK is an Island in Europe. Its geography is unique.
If u stand in Britain and fall down France catches you. France touched is the UK threatened. The Two Countries that touched french is Belgium
Belgium signed a treaty with London. The Treaty of London said that Belgium will follow Neutrality. This Treaty was done in Medieval Indian History. Europe lived with mutual acceptance by means of the Balance of Power Concept. Here the logic was no European country will annex another country (they will not take capital but they could take some small parts from the border)
Britain can take Nantes but cannot take Paris. Germany can take Luxembourg but not Paris
Portugal is a country inside a country called Spain. Lisbon was the centre of people coming out of the Atlantic.
Historical Background to the 18th-Century Europe
1700 AD - Europe had 7 Major Countries
1. Great Britain (London) - Enemy of France
Monarchy + Brits Parliament (by Means of Glorious Revolution for compensating Weak Rulers, as a Bi Cameral Legislature)
Protestant Country → Protested Against Catholics
Liberal Ideas Grew Here
Britain had a total of 300+ Colonies → Mother of Colonies
Her Colonies were both in the West and the East
English is their Language
The King(Person) is Dead, Long Live the King(Institution)
Magna Carta came in 1215 AD
Britain and France are Ancient and Historical Rivals
2. France (Paris) → Enemy of Germany & Britain
France had absolute Monarchy or Royal Absolutism
Here King is Everything
It had a mix of Catholics and Protestants
French was a Major Language
Suffering from the Age of Customs and Traditions
3. Spain (Madrid) → Enemy of France and Britain
Spain had an absolute monarchy
was a catholic monarchy
had interests over South America and Morocco ( North Africa)
It was a Mountainous Region - They were good at Guerilla Warfare
4. Portugal (Lisbon)
Royal Absolutism
Catholics
Known for Geographical Discoveries
Conversion to Christianity by Force - Pen and Sword Policies
Her Interest over Latin or South America
5. Italy (Rome) → Neutral
Theocratic Site - The Holy Roman Empire
Pure Catholic Nation
Was Controlled by the Church / Pope / Papacy
The monarchy was under the Church
Italy is today's Entire Greece + Italy + Part of Turkey
6. Germany (Berlin)
Second Powerful State in Europe
50% Catholics and 50% Protestants
King was called a Kaiser & he was an absolute Monarchy
Their rivals were Britain and France
Old Name of Germany was called Prussia
7. Hapsburg Empire
Austria - Hungary called as Hapsburg Empire (Vienna & Budapest)
Hapsburg Empire Includes Austria and Hungary
They had a Dual monarchy
The King of Hungary was Emperor of Austria
Hapsburg Empire contained - Australia Hungary Kingdom
Slovakia
Slovenia
Bulgaria
Serbia
Mone Negro
Macedonia
A Small Part of Albania
Bosnia - Haerzigovina
Czech Republic
Romania
They All Enjoyed Provincial Autonomy and were from Mixed Race and Cultures but were under a Same Emperor and in the same Empire
Concept of UK
United Kingdom - England, Northern Ireland, Scotland, Whales
England → England Land in Latin Means - Land of Angels
Britannica → Classical Age of Medieval Literature came from → Britain, Britaan, Brits
Great Britain is the same as the United Kingdom
Great because of the Great Aisles of the British Geography
Later the Flag was called as Union Jack
🌏
All of them were Monarchies.
All for the Crown, All is the Crown supported by the Parliament.
Had a Bi Cameral Legislature
✅ Industrial Revolution (1750-1850)
Introduction
It was an Age of Machine
It was born in England
It led to Tremendous Growth - Politically, Economically & Socially
This is an Economic Revolution and Not Political
Revolution is an Organised Change
The Industrial Revolution was declared the Age of Machines, by historians. It replaced the old system with modern techniques
The First Phase of IR began in England in 1750 and w/o a break it continued till 1850
In Total IR has Four Stages
Reasons for IR
The Desire for Material Advancement
“Necessity is the Mother of Invention” so as to Quote, Britain was under the influence of material advancement, according to them man should lead a happy life which requires material
The Rt to Live with Liberty and Equality Requires Property i.e Materials so wealth became a Pre Requisite for the Europeans
Supply of Raw Materials
The Europeans had plenty of Raw Materials, and this led to the exploration of New Lands. The New Lands Gradually became their Colonies and these colonies supplied ample raw materials for their production.
Naturally with Abundance of Raw Materials, with cheap prices made the powerful countries explore more. This Exploration gave birth to IR
Why IR occurred in England
1. Her Geography
Britain has an Isolated Geography. She was an Island. The English channel was a Great Barrier that made Britain Isolated from the European Continent.
She never fought battles in her Land with another Country due to her Geography. Further, the Long Coastline, allowed her to use her resources.
2. Protestant Religion
Britain was a Protestant country by the 1700s which encouraged scientific enquiry. They separated State and the Religion.
Further, they encouraged free trade policy. Scientific Inventions were given more priority. So, advancements took place faster in Britain.
3. A Wealthy Nation
Britain from 1200 AD was a rich country. She had plenty of resources and acquired money through tax collection and land revenue
She was the richest country in the world and her capital formation was very strong.
Until WW1 she was very rich.
4. Strong Monarchy (Supported by Strong Parliament and Magna Carta)
Britain, from ancient times, proved to be a strong country. The Crown was the head of the state supported by Parliament.
The Parliament possessed unlimited powers. Further, the Magna Carta was created in 1215 AD, a document that gave people certain rights and respect to the crown
this strong monarchy led to a political stability
5. Colonialism
Britain was called the Mother of Colonies. She possessed the maximum no of colonies. She had India in the East and America in the West as her Big Colony
These Colonies Supplied Cheap Raw Materials and supported the Growth of Industrialisation.
6. Education
Britain always encouraged education, She had the best form of Education in the World. Many Schools, Colleges and Universities were created.
Almost Every District had a School and College, which naturally made Britain, develop her industrial resources.
Example: oxford college, oxford university, Queen Mary College, Williams College, Dartmouth College were all Great Centres of Scientific Learning
Liberal Thinking and National Outlook was key for British Education System
Education also encouraged scientific thinking
7. Great Inventors
Education Led to Growth of Scientific Knowledge. Almost All Great Inventors were born in England
These Inventors Supported the Govt and made their inventions keeping in view the need of the time. So they all became popular
Other European Countries were Inventing Luxurious Commodities(Versailles, Golden Chariot) but Britain Invented Commodities of Day to Day use that yielded income so their inventions attracted Europe (Railway Tracks, Washing Machines etc)
John Kay - Flying Shuttle
Samuel Crompton - Spinning Industry
James Watt - Steam Engine
Samuel Morse - Morse Code
Mac Adam - Road Construction
Richard Ark Wright - Water Frame & Spinning Frame
8. Plenty of Coal & Coal and Iron Deposit
Britain was blessed with Coal and Iron Mines. These two proved beneficial for the development of IR.
The Textile industries, locomotives and steam-powered machines required coal and coal was required for smelting iron ore.
Iron Replaced all the wooden machines, Engineers improved coal mining techniques where metal cages, tubes, and wires were all used
The availability of coal made Britain the master of Europe. Coal became the cheapest energy and Britain had many of them
9. Peace and Order were already there
Britain always promoted internal peace, strong and sound administration, promoted order in her society, which made her develop her industries.
Her Subjects were never disturbed through battles or wars. she fought all the battles in Europe and ensured her country was in peace and order.
10. Skilled Labourers & Human Resources
Britain by 1700 had tremendous population growth, the population of London expanded from 50,000 to 2,50,000 which saw a big increase in its human resource.
With the Expansion of Trade & Colonies, London’s Population Doubled. So Many Provincial Cities were born. This Growing Population resulted in an Increasing Demand. So to meet the demand Britain Began to construct markets and she began to employ into the army.
The Royal British Navy was numerically strong, and one of the reasons for colonialism was the British army(including the navy).
To Get Jobs the population began to develop and practise a set of skills, these skilled labourers were in demand and supported the growth of the Industrial Revolution
Thus, Britain had the right time, capital and support from her subjects when industrial revolution was born
The Govt began to formulate policies to support IR. Inventors were allowed to take their inventions abroad which encouraged global trade and technical assistance. She was much ahead than all the countries of Europe, gradually industrialisation entered every nook and corner of Britain
Summary of Inventions
Name
Inventions
John Kay, 1733
Flying Shuttle
James Hargreaves, 1767
Spinning Jenny
Richard Ark Wright, 1769
Water Frame
Samuel Crompton, 1779
Spinning Mule
Edmund Cartwright, 1787
Power Loom
Henry Bessemer, 1856
Steel
Thomas Newcoman
Steam Engine
1761
Bridge Water Canal
James Watt, 1769
Refined Steam Engine
Alexandro Volta
Voltaic Cell
Michael Faraday
Electromagnetism → Dynamo
1813
Electric Motor
Thomas Alva Edison, 1878
Electric Light
John Mac Adam
Method of Laying Roads
Revolution in the Field of Cotton
1. John Kay, 1733 → Flying Shuttle
Flying Shuttle
In 1733, John Kay invented the Flying Shuttle which increased the output of weaving.
The Flying Shuttle made it possible, to weave broader/coarser fabric. Further weaving was done in less time, which greatly speeded up the process of weaving.
2. James Hargreaves, 1767 → Spinning Jenny
In 1767, James Hargreaves invented the Spinning Jenny. It was a compound machine on which a single person could spin several yarns simultaneously.
For example, in the initial first experiment, one Person could produce 16 threads at a time.
3. Richard Arkwright, 1769 → Water Frame
He Invented the Water Frame, It provided stronger threads than before. It was faster than the spinning jenny.
4. Samuel Crompton, 1779 → Spinning Mule
It had both the spinning jenny and the water frame. This machine was able to produce, cotton and linen threads.
5. Edmund Cartwright, 1787 → Power Loom
Power Loom made weaving faster and easier.
All these Inventions resulted in the increase of Cotton Production by 10 times. Cotton Production exceeded the domestic demand. They created markets in Europe to dump their cotton clothes
Manchester became a great centre of British Cotton. Cities like Liverpool, Oxford and London developed as textile centres. Thus cotton gave an impetus to IR. She became a Global Power in the field of Textiles.
Revolution in the Field of Iron and Steel
Earlier People followed a primitive method of smelting iron ore in a Brick Furnace, by which charcoal was used as a fuel. This iron was brittle, later coke was used to produce iron. The process was expensive and tiring.
In 1856, Henry Bessemer, Invented Steel (processed steel) which was a cheaper and faster way of producing steel was invented. All the wooden machines were replaced with steel. Britain was blessed with Iron Ore Deposits which naturally made her use it in her industries.
Iron Bridges were constructed in England.
Revolution in the Field of Power
Britain decided to increase her demand in all spheres. Thomas Newcoman invented the first steel engine. It was used to pump water from the coal mines, but the machine consumed too much fuel.
Later, James Watt redefined Newcoman’s Steam Engine which produced more power and less fuel. It was patented in 1769
The Invention of the Steam Engine created the manufacturing of many textile mills in urban centres.
Alexandaro Volta invented the Voltaic Cell, which further Increased the power Industry.
Michael Faraday invented Magnetic Induction and studied the Transformation of Mechanical Energy into Electrical Energy.
Dynamos were Invented to produce Electricity. In 1813, Electric Motors were Invented.
In 1878, Thomas Alva Edison invented the Electric Light
Revolution in the Field of Transport
IR introduced Tremendous Changes in the Transportation sector also. The combined forces of Steam Engine, Iron & Power. Inaugurated a New Era for Transport.
Road
John Mac Adam invented the method of laying strong and sturdy roads by which goods can move and transfer without No Jolt.
The Gravel was used to lay strong roads and later Tar was poured on top of it. The roads were levelled using Iron Bars.
This process of Road Making is called as MacAdamising.
By 1850, all great cities of England were connected.
Waterways
Canals and waterways allowed transportation faster.
in 1761, the Bridge water canal was constructed in North Western England to carry coal from Worsley to Manchester
Within a Year Many Canals were Constructed. England began to construct more than 4000 miles of canal. Today very few are existing. 1762 is known as the Year of Canal Mania
Water Transport was considered to be cheap and the best
Railways
The invention of Railways took Industrialisation to an advanced level. The development of Railways had two aims.
It was quicker and cheaper
It could carry heavy goods across a long distance
in 1825, George Stephenson was called the father of railways and his son Robert Stephen was called Locomotion No 1. It ran from Liverpool to Manchester.
This Railway had 13 compartments or coaches, 9 for goods and 4 for passengers. The Success of the Railways created Railway Mania throughout England, more than 6000 miles of railways were opened. The Railway boom gave a further push to the IR.
By 1850 All Cities were connected and the England Train became a popular symbol in Europe
Revolution in the Field of Communication
Samuel Morse invented the Telegraph which was Initially unsuccessful. Later he redesigned it in 1844, it paved way for better communication.
Marconi Invented the Radio. Alexander Graham Bell invented Telephone. The disconnected world became connected
Conclusion
This IR was an Evolutionary Process. It continued until three generations. Great Britain became superior to all the countries of the world. Gradually it spread to other countries.
Belgium became the second country in the world after England to undergo IR and the first in the European Continent
In 1830, Belgium became an independent country. Belgium used all the same British Patterns in her Industries. Wallonia in Souther Belgium became an Industrial Hub, following Belgium and later France, Italy, Germany, and Sweden took Industrial Revolution. Gradually Europe developed and the first phase almost ended in 1850.
Impact or Significance or Results of IR
Positive Impacts
Negative Impacts
Standard of Living Improved
Promoted Colonialism
Cheap Goods were available
Exploitation of Nature & HR Violations
Life became Comfortable
Generated Unskilled & Unemployment
Urbanisation
Child Labour Entered - Charles Dickens studied until 12 Yrs
Rise of New Class - Middle Class - Highly Loyal to Govt
Birth of Slums & Urban Ghettos
Created Skilled Employment
Heavy Taxation System Entered
Scientific Temperament Developed
Condition of Poor became miserable → Wide Gap between Rich & Poor → Gave Birth to Inequalities
Encouragement to New Fields of Scientific Education Given
Sowed Seeds for Future Wars in Europe
Disconnected World Got Connected
Unhealthy & Unhygienic Life of Worker + Loss of Ethical Values
Women Employment
The exploitation of Women & Double Burden on Women
In India Law is for the poor because the rich make the law
Conclusion
Thus, The Industrial Revolution had various impacts of its own. Later the public health act of 1848 was passed in England. The Act focused on improving Sanitation & Living Standards in Urban and Populous Areas in England. This act is also seen as a move away from Laissez Faire Theory i.e no intervention in economic affairs. The state aimed to promote public health.
The Negative Impact of the Famous Novelist, Charles Dickens himself entered into Child Labour of IR mentions the Negativities and the disadvantage of IR
Sample Questions
Question 1: Why England became the Harbinger of IR? Mention the Social Impact of IR.
Question 2: Whoever says IR says cotton. Discuss
Question 3: What were the circumstances which made England a Great Power and to Introduce IR ?
✅ The American Revolution (1776 - 1783)
Chapter : The American Revolution & American War of Independence
American Civil War is not in Syllabus
Running Notes
Portugal in 1400 - Geographical Discoveries encouraged by state led to the discoveries of New Lands
1492 - Christopher Columbus was asked to find sea routes to India
Reached Bahamas thinking it was Sri Lanka. They were Red Indians. He then move forward and reached Colombia.
America was discovered by Colombia. Hence was called as New Land. in 1500, on Amerigo Vespucci name was America named
The Tribe in America were Red Indians were actually Aztecs. Portuguese didn’t establish colony there
By 1700 → 13 Colonies were made in America
in the time period of 1600 to 1700 → in 100 Years 13 Colonies was established which comprised of Britishers of 95%
Background
1400’s
by 1400, the Portuguese govt encouraged the concept of Geographical Discoveries by which new Land were discovered and these lands were openly declared as the New Land.
1490’s
A New Land was a term used by the Europeans, if they found a land w/o European Settlers. Gradually these New Lands turned as colonies. America was one such. in 1492, Christopher Columbus discovered a New Land called the Bahamas and Colombia.
in 1492, Amerigo Vespucci entered the New Land and Further expanded it with his discovery. So, the New Land was named America by the Portuguese.
1500’s
By 1500’s, the new land was known to the world as America but the Taboo was attached which was the Atlantic Ocean where the Sailors found it difficult to cross and Navigate. So America became unsettled by the Europeans
1600’s
By 1600, Few Europeans that is the Germans and the French reached the New Land but did not occupy it.
By 1650, the britishers began to enter the newland
1700’s
By 1700, there were 13 Colonies in the North Eastern Part of America
They Were
New Hampshire → Northern Most Colony
Delaware
Connecticut
Rhode Island
Maryland
Pennsylvania
Massachusetts
Virginia → First Colony
North Carolina
South Carolina
Georgia → Southern most Colony
York Twon
New Jersey
These 13 Colonies were settlement of Britain. They used them for their Raw Material for Lumber, Fish, Fur, Leather, Paints, Tea, Salt & Tobacco. They were known for its quality.
Further, the New Land was prosperous and rich in natural resources. All the Subjects of the 13 colonies were Britishers. These colonies enjoyed great amount of freedom and they all had their own govt. There was no interference from Britain. So they all lived like Independent Subjects.
Reasons for Migration
Religious Policy of Britain to execute all the catholic made all the fathers to escape to the new land. They took the ship names May Flower and Reached New Land
They Names their Settlement as Virginia
Policy of James 2, further made all the catholics to reach New Land.
The Big Business group to avoid heavy Taxation reached New Land and they began to Settle at New Hampshire, Connecticut, Pennsylvania and Massachusetts
The Political Prisoners were all exiled to the New Land. They reached Delaware and pledged to revenge the mother country. They hated Britain
The Common People who were generally dissatisfied with Britain, who suffered with unemployment decided to settle in the new land
At Britain, a poor man was sold to the rich in order to avoid such a situation the people thought it was better to reach America
Thus, Many Britishers reached New Land. According to Statistics 97% of settlers were Brits.
These Settlers had few things in common
English Language
They were all Christians, which had a mix of both Catholics and Protestants and they called themselves as the Quakers and the Puritans (Catholics)
Majority of them were Educated
There was a Big Business Group
They used the same British Currency i.e Pound
They all hated their mother country
Causes for American Revolution
Attitude & Ideology
America Mentioned her as a Separate Country but Britain Rejected. So there was a Clash between Ideologies and Attitude of Colonist and Mother Country.
According to History - America was a Colony. The Colonist refused to accept it
Deployment of Army
Britain Deployed here Royal Army in all the 13 Colonies
Series of Acts passed by British Parliament- The Intolerable Acts
Navigation Act, 1651
According to this Act, America was to trade only with Britain. Her Goods to be carried with English Ships only. This Act made America to close all here Ship Building Units
Britain did not enforce it Rigidly, she gave them a Relaxation that if the mother was benefited, the child would automatically grow and trading with a single country is where monopoly could be retained
America Refused it, but she was forced. Following this many Navigation Acts were passed, whenever America violated, Britain suppressed it
Sugar Act, 1764
Act Imposed duty on Sugar & Molasses imported into the colonies. It was enforced Stringently
Currency Act, 1764
This Act stopped the Americans from issuing paper currency. They asked the colonists to continue with British Pound
Stamp Act, 1765
According to this Act, Colonists had to pay tax to Britain to obtain official stamp on posters, wills, deeds and other contracts. The Colonists opposed it and they were suppressed. They raised Slogans and Mentioned it as a Direct Exploitation on them
Famous Slogan : No Taxation w/o Representation was raised against Stamp Act
The Britishers did not heed to it
Townshend Act, 1767
Townshend was the New Chancellor of Ex Chequer. He decided to tax the Americans more. He made the Navigation Act even more stringer and passed the Non Smuggling Act by which the British Army would Safeguard the American Goods on High Seas to Prevent Smuggling
Lord North’s Tea Policy, 1773
Lord North was a PM of America from Britishers Side. According to his Tea Act, the Americans had to pay a Tax on Tea which entered their Land. This was the Spark of the War
1773 - Warren Hastings is Viceroy of India
Tea came to Massachusetts at Boston Port
Impact of 7 Years War
The 7 Years War was fought from 1756 to 1763 at Europe between Britain & France
The Theatre of War was Europe but it reflected in 4 Places
Europe
India - Third Carnatic War
Africa at Egypt
At America
War Ended with Victory of Britishers and the Treaty of Paris was Signed, according to which
France has to Vacate America Immediately
France has to surrender her mainland territories of North America & Canada to the Britishers
France has to Surrender her Territories East of River of Mississippi
Spain has to exchange Florida with Cuba thus the 7 Years War Increased the Pride of Britain at America
Britain decided to maintain an Army at America. Thus a New America Army was created with the American Soldiers. The Americans now Learnt the Art of Warfare so they decided to fight Britain with the same strategy.
George Washington, Hamilton - The Great Generals who began to Train the Youth at America
The Americans Love for Freedom
The Americans basically were for freedom, almost for a century they had tasted it, the peasants of British Army, Viceroys Interference, Series of Navigation Acts, The Shut Down of Many American Industries like Ship Building. These All Triggered them
All the 13 Colonies Representatives met frequently and decided to fight the Britishers yet they did not get a strong reason
Intellectual Awareness
The Americans Naturally favoured education. Their Political & Economic Stability created Intellectual Awareness.
Pennsylvania was the first colony in the Field of Education. Universities like Harvard & Yale were established and many schools were created on London Model of Education.
Almost Education was compulsory in colonies which created a New Outlook in the minds of the Americans.
Through Education, they began to Publish, Articles, Journals and Magazines. The American Gazette was the first Newspaper which almost connected them all together.
Further, Thomas Paine wrote the Common Sense, which ignited a sense of Individuality in the minds of Americans. With Education great orators were born, like Samuel Adams, James Otis, Henry Patrick. They All Gradually became popular through their speeches
Samuel Adams created a Secret Society called the Sons of Liberty at Boston in 1765. This society opposed the Stamp Act of Britain, they raised Slogans against the Britishers.
The Immediate Cause
Lord Norths Tea Policy, 1773
Lord North became the PM of Britain and he decided to frame new policies for America. He altered the stringent laws on the Americans. in 1773 he introduced his Tea Policy popularly called as the Tea Act. According to this Policy, Americans had to pay tax if tea entered their port. There were Slogans against this Policy. The Sons of Liberty decided to Fight the Britishers.China had many unsold tea in her godowns, so britishers decided to release these tea in the markets of America, the act also allowed Britishers to Sell, Surplus Amount of Tea at America at Cheaper Prices. The Tea Act created a Big Resentment, they Openly Condemned it. So they decided to fight the Britishers.
Boston Tea Party
in 1773, an East India Company Ship Landed the coast of Boston, Samuel Adams and his followers disguised themselves as Indian Coolies and dumped 340 Carton Boxes of tea into the Sea. This incident Historically is called as The Boston Sea Party
After Math of Boston Tea Party
The Britishers when the got to know the incidence, got agitated and immediately adopted stern measures like
They Arrested Francis Akele, a Members of Sons of Liberty.
The Port of Boston was Closed
Massachusetts has to pay a compensation to the britishers for the loss
A Curfew was imposed at Boston and Massachusetts was to handover Samuel Adams to the Britishers
They would be tried at the Privy Council in London.
An Embargo on Massachusetts
Embargo : an official ban on trade or other commercial activity with a particular country
The Aftermath of Action by Britishers
Natives were Agitated
Samuel Adams decided to convene a meeting to unite all the Americans in 1774, the first continental congress was convened at Philadelphia with George Washington as its president.
The Main goal of this Congress was “to Stand Together” → They Pledged to Violate all the Acts, a war was necessary to fight the Britishers
Samuel Adams mentioned that “We Win, We Gain” → “We Loose, We Die”
Congress also declared that “The American to Collect Arms”
The Concord Incidence & Allied Battles
Concord a Town in Massachustest where the British Armoury was Placed. A Group of American youth broke the Armoury and seized some weapons
General Gaze, British Commander, Immediately ordered for a Shooting, Few Americans and Britishers Died. The Americans took this Incident as a spark to Lead the war.
In 1775, all the colonies gathered at Philadelphia. They decided to fight a War (Second Continental Congress), George Washington was declared as the Commander in Chief of the American Army and 4th July 1776 was declared as the Day of Independence.
Patrick Lawrence gave his Famous Slogan “Give Me Liberty ot Give me Death” with this slogan, the Americans began the war. Two Battles were fought
the Battle of Bunker Hill which had a set back for Americans
the Battle of Sartoga was fought in 1777, France and Spain also joined the war to help the Americans. in 1781 Lord Cornwallis surrendered at York Town by which The Americans, hailed a Big Victory.
in 1783 Treaty of Paris was signed according to which
All the 13 Colonies were Granted Independence and They all were to Merge together and be called as “The United States of America”
France was compensated with, Senegal in Africa
Spain was given few African Colonies. She demanded Florida and it was given back
The boundary line between Canada and America was demarcated along River Ohio
Britain was to maintain a friendly relationship with America, France & Spain
Thus a New Country, Named USA was born.
Significance of American War of Independence
A new country i.e USA was born
The World saw the first presidential form of Govt with George Washington as their first president
America formulated her first written constitution which is called as the Bill of Rights which had 8 Articles in total 12 Pages
It was an Inspiration to other nations, across the world particularly to latin America. India, Malaysia, Singapore, Sri Lanka, Ireland took America as their role model to fight the mother country
Birth of New Ideologies where the concept of Self Rule & Democracy initiated many countries to fight their colonial masters
The Social Impact of the Revolution broke the Orthodoxy of the Society where women were allowed Public Employment, Rt to Vote & Equal Treatment in Societal Activities
Status of American Women, completely changed after the revolution. She was seen as a Symbol of Strength, Equality and Liberty
With the Birth of America as a New Country the World Trade prospered. She all most traded with all the countries and regulated her market prices. Her Goods were always on demand and it was known for its quality. All her ports were opened for Navigation
Conclusion
Thus the American Revolution created a New Era in the History of the World. She Followed Two Policies
The Policy of Isolation from Worldly Affairs
The Policy of Iron Curtain - A Self Proclaimed Policy to develop herself Internally
till 1917 these two policies were adapted, she almost moved westward and annexed many territories and created new states.
in 1917 due to german interference, she opened her curtain and entered the first world war
Questions Asked - Why & Significance of American Revolution
✅ French Revolution (1789 - 1815)
Running Notes on FR
Louis XIV was contemporary of Aurangzeb. Louis XVI and all his people were from Bourbon Dynasty
Treaty of Versailles had Hall or Mirror
French is called as Uninvited Guests in all the Wars. Britain never lost a Battle and French never won a Battle.
Louis XVI (King) → Wife of Louis XVI is Mary Antoinette (Austrian)
He was a good ruler, he wanted the people to be happy but didn’t know what to do.
Mary Antoinette wanted the French to turn into Austria. She was a ill adviser to King.
Corruption is Equal to France. Napoleon Lost all Battles.
James 3 was the king of Austria and gave loan to French. Marie was sister of James 3. The Loan was Personal.
Palace of Versailles is 20 KM from Paris.
Eat Cake → as cake is cheaper than Bread. People were on Single Meal
Estates in France → Estate General Hall → Near it has a Tennis Court.
First Estate → Church / Papal’s → 0% Tax → Church Lands → Hereditary Class
Second Estate → Aristocrats → Nobles → 0% Tax
Third Estate → Common People → 97% Heavy Taxation → Labourers, Peasants, Philosophers
5% Tithe → Religious Tax to the Church
Feudalism → War Lords
Corvee → People from Third Estate Pay to Estate 1 & 2 → Its a type of Duty
All Catholic Nations come under the Flag of Holy Roman Empire of Italy. French was primarily a Catholic Nation.
Introduction
France Witnessed a Revolution which shattered the Entire Monarchical System of Europe. She was under the Bourbon Dynasty ruled by Louis Kings.
The Bourbons were known for their Luxurious & Sophisticated Lifestyle. A King Names Louis XIV considered to the greatest ruler of France introduced few reforms for the development of his subjects. He had the longest rule in France.He constructed a Palace at Versailles.
After him his successors were weak, during FR it was Louis XVI who was the Monarch and Marie Antoinette was his Queen.
Causes of FR
There were Multiple causes for the FR and they were all gradual.
Renaissance is the old wine in the New Bottle. Renaissance gave birth to Reason.
Political Causes
Absolute Monarchy
Louis XVI was an Inefficient Ruler. He was under the Influence of his wife, Mary Antoinette. He failed to Introduce reforms and never convened the Estates General Meeting. (Estate General Hall)
This absolute Monarchy was a continuos feature at France. The subjects were used to it but due to his inefficiency, the common people began to criticise him
No Uniform Laws in France
The Absolute Monarchy gave privileges to the Nobles and Aristocrats but the common people suffered. France was divided into 4 provinces, each under a governor
Each Province had Separate Laws. Further corruption added to their misery. Anyone could be imprisoned without an official warrant. So the third estate suffered the most.
Anyone who spoke against the state were imprisoned and were declared as Political Prisoners
Involvement of France in Wars of Europe
The Europeans declared France as an Uninvited Guests. She took interest in European Politics and Interfered in the Politics of Other Nations. Further she had been defeated by Britain at Several Wars.
Example : Austrian Succession War, Three Carnatic Wars, Seven Years War
This made the common people to fight against the Monarchy. There was no honour for France at Europe. A French Citizen lost his morale at Europe.
The Weak Character of France
France Lacked Basic Morality and there was continuos Anarchy from the time of Louis XV. There were many social evils in the society, neither the king nor the aristocrats took steps to abolish it.
The Aristocrats enjoyed more privileges, even the king feared, the king did not face them due to an Internal Threat. So he couldn't solve the problem, feudalism worsened the situation even more, the feudal lords supported the king with their army. They were also called as War Lords.
These feudal lords corrupted the common people and enjoyed all the Benefits. The common people felt ignored by these privileges enjoyed by the church, Aristocrats and feudal lords.
There was a Complete Anarchy at France before French Revolution
Economic
A Famine
Just before the Revolution France faced a Severe Famine and the country was under an Economic Standstill. Many Economists were called to overcome the Situation but they failed.
The King appointed 4 Economists but the queen dismissed them all. Failure of Crops, prices of bread increased and starvation became a common factor at France. The Harsh Winters of 1788 further worsened the Situation where many died, the king did not take any steps to overcome it.
International Funds were created, Bread Riots were seen everywhere at France. The French Treasury was almost on the verge of Bankruptcy, Austria and Britain helped France to overcome the situation but the money was used for their personal expenditure.
Social
The French Society was divided into the Three Estates
First Estate
It comprised of the Bishops, the Clergy & People associated with the Church
They Enjoyed all the privileges and were highly respected.
The Entire church property was with them.
They collected Tithe or Tith from the Third Estate, it was 5%
They Paid No Tax
They lived a Luxurious Life supported by the King
The Second Estate
It consisted of the Aristocrats, Nobles and Feudal Lords. They were highly corrupted, they had huge properties and enjoyed all the benefits from the State. They paid No Tax.
Instead they asked the Lower Estate to do Carvee for them. The Carvee almost completed all the Basic Essentials for the Second State.
The Third Estate
The entire french population was in the Third Estate where 97% age were them. It was not a homogenous group, it consisted of the workers, the traders, the artisans, teachers, philosophers, bakers, spinners & weavers etc
They constituted the Major Share in the Society due to their Numerical Strength, they paid Tax to the Govt or Tithe to the Church.
Further, they had Carvee to be maintained with the Master. Initially from the time of Louis XIV, they saw no signs of Poverty or Unemployment. Everyone possessed an Agricultural Land and a Property. Gradually with the change of Rulers and Policies, they were affected and entered a Stage of Poverty.
It is this group which launched the French Revolution, and made the absolute monarchy to fall
Intellectual
France gave birth to a lot of Philosophers. The Revolution was full of Ideas, which entered every corner of Europe, the 18th Century was called as the Age of Reason.
There were many intellectual thinking which began to mention about Rights, Equality, Liberty & Reforms. There are 3 Philosophers who changed the Shape of French Society.
Montesquieu
He was against the privileges enjoyed by the two states as it was in equal. He exposed all the weakness of the monarchy to the people.
in 1748, He wrote a book called “Spirit of Laws” which clearly demarcated the powers of the King i.e he mentioned Separation of Powers. Montesquieu Advocated a Constitutional Monarchy like Britain. He Preached Individual Liberty. If reforms were not introduced, France would undergo a revolution mentioned Montesquieu
Voltaire
His works were all a Satire and it almost ignited even a dead mind. He Exposed the Weakness of Church, Nobles and the King. He wrote a book “The Philosophical Discourse” in which he mentions, The Age of Reason of France would lead to a Revolution. He also demanded a constitutional monarchy with limited powers with the King.
His Famous Quote : Newton is Bigger than Caesar.
Jean Jacques Rousseau
Hadn’t there been Rousseau, Napoleon wouldn’t have existed → Said Napoleon
Chop him into Pieces and crush the Barbaric Animal → Said French Govt
His book was called “The Social Contract Theory”
He is considered to be the major reasons for FR for his revolutionary ideas in his book The Social Contract Theory acc to which The King and the People of the Contract
If the king failed in his duty, the people can or could assassinate the king
Revolutionary Ideas entered the minds of common people
Course of FR
National Assembly & the Tennis Court Oath
under the above circumstances the third estate decided to force the king to convene the estate generals meeting. after 175 years, the estates general meeting was convened, all the three estates had their own representatives.
On 5th May 1789, the historic meeting was held at Paris, the King convinced all the three estates to do the needful. The Third Estate under their leader Mirabeau, decided to frame a constitution for France, to get the approvals of King, they met him at Versailles where the king promised to convene the meeting again
By June, the TE felt disappointed and requested the king to accept the constitution. The hall was closed and the king was at Versailles. The Mob took a radical step and declared themselves as National Assembly of France. Due to Heavy Rains, they took shelter in the Nearby Tennis Court and took an Oath that “We the TE, stand united, draft the constitution and limit the monarchy of France”. They also called themselves as the National Council of France. This oath is the Beginning of FR.
Stages of FR
Stage of Bastille (1789-92)
Bastille an Old Fort at Paris was the Palace of Bourbon Dynasty till Louis XIV, Now it was the French Armoury & Fusion
There was utter confusion and Chaos at Paris. A Group at Violent Mob, Marched towards Bastille and Open Fired
They Broke the Fort to the Ground and released all the Prisoners, according to some historians this is the beginning of FR and the immediate cause
By Aug 1789, the National Assembly took control of France, the King became Helpless. The first & second estate were in state of panic
Within a week, the King Signed the decree given by Mirabeau. The National Assembly called it as the “August Declaration” and their first achievement
Second Achievement was Proclamation of Individual Rights & Liberties. On Sep 1789, the French Constitution was drafted and named as Declaration of Rights of Man and Its Citizens ; According to it
Feudalism was to be Established
Merit based System in Administration
Liberty Equality & Fraternity to all its Citizens
Liberation of Press
A Limited Constitutional Monarchy
The King accepted it as there was no choice, by 1791 France became a Constitutional Monarchy. The King and his family members planned to escape France to reach Austria. A News Reached that Austria might wage a war on France
A Violent Mob captured the King and his family members and Imprisoned him at Fort Tuliers
Thus the Fall of Bastille came to an end.
Reign of Terror (1792-94)
Reign of Terror By Robespierre. It is also called as the National Convention.
Customs become Convention and then the States hold it
Custom is Individual and Convention is a Group Phenomenon
Tradition is not Custom. Custom is done by many where as Tradition may Vary
France was still at unrest and the mob turned violent and there were lot of political fractions at France. The Clubs at France welcomed this Unrest. Majority of the people wanted a Republican Form of Govt at France like other countries. The Jacobian Club was one of the most popular and powerful club at Paris. It was headed by Robespierre
He decided to form the Govt. Due to his popularity, he formed the National Convention of France. For the Next Two Years, it became the Govt of France.
The National Convention, ruled France with Peoples Support. Britain, Italy & Austria declared war on France and they threatened the Internal Peace on France.
In 1792, National Convention declared France to be Republic and declared the King, Queen & Family Members as the reason for Revolution
IN 1793, they were Guillotined, and it was used in a wide scale to cut people head who were against the national convention. Thus the 1000 Year old Monarchy came to an end in the Name of Revolutionary Justice.
After the Execution of the King the National Convention began to focus on Domestic Reforms, it abolished Slavery in all the French Colonies and gave the Citizens the Concept of Liberty, Equality & Fraternity but still there were some revolutionary who threatened the Internal Peace of France
Italy reached the Borders of France, so Robespierre Appointed Napoleon as the Brigadier General and he led his Italian campaign which was successful. He led the Italian Campaign
He Successfully evacuated the Italian Forces and reached Paris. Robespierre ordered his army who ever challenged the National Convention. More than 20,000 Innocent people were Slaughtered.
Finally in 1794, a Group of Mob, Guillotined Robespierre, thus the Stage came to an end.
The Age of Directory (1795-99)
The Stage of Directory entered in 1795 with 5 Military Heads assuming Leadership of France, they were the executive heads. So they were called as the Directory, Italy, Austria & Britain threatened France. So they appointed Napoleon to Suppress Italians Again, Which was the second Italian Campaign of Napoleon. He succeeded in it and became very popular at France.
In 1798, the directory ordered Napoleon, to check the advancement of Britain, Napoleon decided to defeat Britain in her colonies, so he led the Egyptian Campaign.
He Fought Two Battles → Battle of Nile & Battle of Pyramids
which was a setback, he left the army to proceed the battle and returned to France, he was welcomed by his people
The Directory failed to administer France within a Month, he overthrew the Directory.
in 1799 he declared himself to be the First Council of France and Created a New Constitution and declared France to be a Republic
The Napoleon Era (1799-1815)
Napoleon as Consul (1799-1804) → Internal Reforms
Internal Reforms
Running Notes
Acc to Napoleon → State without Religion is a Ship with Anchor → Macaulays Code in 1861-62
Introduction
He Tried to develop France Internally. He in 1799, introduced series of reforms which were
Economic Changes
He abolished Feudalism & declared that the age old practise had come to an end
He abolished the estate system & made them equal before law
Administration
He opened the administration of France to his Subjects and Introduced Merit based system in Administration by which an exam would be conducted for top post.
Willing Participants could write and clear the exam and join services.
Polity
He Declared France to be a Catholic Nation & Invited Pope Pius the VIII to declare France as part of Holy Roman Empire
He Created 4 Provinces for France, Each Province had a Mayor or Prefect and their main duty was to maintain peace and order by which all the revolutionary idea at France almost came to an end.
He Confiscated all the properties from Bishops and declared them as State Lands
The Bishops were now appointed by the States
Banking & Taxation
in 1800, he established the Bank of France with its HQ at Paris The Bank gave Loans on Interest to Common Public
in 1803, the bank issued its currency & it had the complete monopoly over it
Acc to majority of the historians, Napoleons banking system is considered to be one of the greatest Institution of the World
Later, Regional Centres were opened in all the Provinces
An Equal Taxation was introduced to all the Subjects
He fixed 1/6th as the Land Revenue and the Share of the State
Education
He Believed in the Power of Education,
Introduced Compulsory Education For all
All the Schools to be State Owned
Both Boys and Girls were Encouraged to Study and Develop themselves and the Nation
Every Province had a Secondary School or Higher School
Greek Latin and French were Taught in these Schools
The Higher Schools were completely a training school and compulsory military training was imparted
IN 1804, Paris Uni was established it became one of the Famous Centre of Education in Europe
Law
He declared Laws for France and Codified it. 5 Codes were introduced
Civil Code
Civil Procedure Code
Criminal Code
Criminal Procedure Code
Penal Code
These Codes were called as Napoleonic Code, which was systematic, Orderly & Clear
Today 23 Nations across the world follow Napoleonic Code like Spain, Portugal, Egypt, Cuba, Bavaria, Germany, Austria etc
Conclusive Remarks
He Eradicated Poverty & unemployment in France
Life & property was made Secure for all his Subjects
The Overall purpose of Napoleon was achieved through Internal Reforms
He is also considered to be Father of Industrial Revolution at France
Reforms Introduced by him left a Long Lasting Impact on France
in 1804, due to a clash with other consul. He abolished the consul system and declared himself as the dictator of France
Napoleon as the Dictator (1804-1815)n → Waged Wars
Napoleon decided to annexe countries at Europe. He also aimed to create Neighbour States from France. In 1804, He Annexed himself Italy and crowned himself Ruler of Italy. His brother Joseph was declared ruler of Italy
in 1805 he annexed Holland and appointed his Brother Louis Bonaparte as its ruler
in 1805 he fought the Battle of Trafalgar with Britain and suffered severe Loss
in 1806 he introduced the Continental according to which, England was not a part of European Continent
No Country in Europe was to trade with Britain. If so France would attack them, so all the other nations feared Napoleon. It was an Economic Blockade created for Britain
in 1806, he defeated Austria at Ulm, Austria accepted the Overlordship of France.
in 1807, he signed the Treaty of Tilsit between Napoleon and Tzar Alexander 1 of Russia according to which Russia was to help France against Britain.
in 1807, pope Pius the VIII refused to accept the Continental System. Napoleon Ordered the people to vacate Italy. He placed his son on the throne as the ruler of Italy. Left with no choice, pope accepted it.
Napoleon was in height of his power, the entire Rhine Land came under his control where he created the confederation of Rhine.
He Redrew the Map of Europe and altered all its boundaries, due to fear all the European nations accepted him.
in 1808, he attacked Spain, for 4 Long years the Battle was fought, there was a peoples revolt which made the french army to retreat. Napoleon placed his brother, Joseph the two as the ruler of Spain. Spaniards refused to accept them, the revolt continued and drained the wealth of France. Historically this is called as the Spanish Ulcer.
Meantime Britain and Russia signed a Treaty of Friendship, angered Napoleon. so in 1812 napoleon led the Moscow Campaign, he declared war on Russia and Reached Moscow. Britain, Spain, Austria, Prussia, Italy, Joined the Moscow Campaign and the Battle of Nations was fought and the Napoleon was defeated.
He Self Exiled himself to Mt Elba near the Mediterranean Sea. His whereabouts were unknown. Britain declared Louis XVIII as the ruler of France.
In 1814, Napoleon reached Paris and was welcomed by his subjects. He declared war on all the countries & Britain accepted the challenge.
In 1815 the Battle of Waterloo was fought. He was defeated and exiled to St Helena in the South Atlantic. He lived there as the Loner and died in 1821.
Louis 18 was restored as the Loner of France, thus with the fall of Napoleon Revolution came to an End.
Impact of FR Significance of FR
France became a Republic. End of Bourbon Dynasty.
Key Elements of French Revolution was Liberty, Equality & Fraternity which became the Slogan of European Nations
Declaration of the Rights of Man became a Central Concept of France
French Revolution destroyed all the Artistrocratic Privileges based on birth and now it was replaced with the concept of Equality before Law
Idea of Nationalism was born after the Revolution cuz the subjects were Citizens of King and not the State
The Revolution taught them Nation and Concept of Free Citizens living under a Common Law
Rise of Napoleon and his reforms. He is often referred as the Son of Revolution
It was an Inspiration to the outside world as many countries referred the FR to settle their disputes
Example, Concept of Plebiscite was introduced by Napoleon during revolution
He conducted many of them during revolution, so it became a divide for Europe for settling Disputes
Unification of Italy and Germany (1815-1870)
Introduction
After battle of waterloo, Napoleon was exiled to St Helena. The condition of France was under turmoil. Louis XVIII was placed as the ruler of France, yet there were unrest at France.
The European Leaders looked for Peace and Stability at Europe, so they all decided to convene a Congress and Settle European Issues.
The Major Issues were
To Restore Monarchy at France
What to do with Italy and Germany ?
Redraw the Map of Europe & Restoration of Kingdoms
So the Congress of Vienna was convened in 1815
4A - Unification of Italy
Congress of Vienna, 1815
Congress was participated by more than 200 States and the 4 great powers i.e Russia, England, Austria, Prussia decided to take the lead and frame laws for Europe
Prince Metternich from Austria represented the Congress. Towards the end, Congress concluded that
Italy was to be divided into 9 States as it was with Napoleon and each state was to have a head.They would work as autonomous provinces and the issue of Italy would be settled in the new course.
Louis XVIII continued as the Ruler of France with their constitution.
Balance of Power to be Maintained amongst all the states
A German confederation of 38 States to be under the presidency of Austria.
Switzerland was enlarged and she accepted Neutrality
Boundaries of France to go back to 1789 i.e as existed at the time of Louis XVI
Thus the Congress of Vienna took control of Italy and Germany indirectly
Reasons of Italian Unification
Hatred Towards Metternich and Congress of Vienna
The 9 States of Italy were
Piedmont Sardinia
Lombardy
Venezia
Parma
Modena
Tuscany
The Papal States
Maples - Kingdom of Two
Scillies - Kingdom of Two
These States were to have their own governors and representatives, mentioned the congress of Vienna. Metternich and his system were hated by the Italians
There was too much of domination & interference bu Austria in the name of Protection
Popular Movements, Societies & Uprisings
from 1820’s there were lots of societies and movements in Italy
The Italians were frustrated with their existing governments
in 1820, a society called The Carbonary was created by a group of young revolutionaries. The main aim of The Carbonary was to unite Italy with peace.
gradually Carbonary became popular throughout Italy and became a movement. They created their own flag of Black, Red & Blue.
The Flag was hoisted in all the important places, to show the protest against Austria and France.
By 1830’s The Carbonaries grew bigger in Size and began to challenge their own respective govt
They had no great leaders or any political agenda
in 1830, Mazzini Established the Young Italy, which fought for the cause of Italian Unification
It too became a movement and the members of It were called as Red Shirts
Risorgimento, means revival. It was a society created by the Carbonaries which was a Secret Society. Its main was to fight for Italian Unification. It took inspiration from other existing movements of Europe
Carbonary & Risorgimento were the main reason which created a platform for Italian Unification
The Attitude of Pope
Pope Pius the IX, installed the feelings of Unification in the minds of the Italians. He convinced all the supporters. he also feared that his Papal States might break in the future.
He demanded the essence of Catholicism and demanded that the holy roman empire should stay united. he aimed to protect Rome.
He wanted Italian Unification under his Leadership, he was against the Constitution and a Parliamentary form of Government which was preached by the Revolutionaries.
So gradually he began to withdraw his support, he sought help from France to protect Rome. So the French Army marched and was stationed at rome in 1848.
This angered the Revolutionaries. They tried to convince the pope but he refused, so the revolutionaries decided to unify north and south first and then gradually unite the Papal States.
The Italians Love for Freedom
The Italians had tasted the concept of Liberty, Equality and Fraternity under Napoleon, when Napoleon annexed Italy. It was badly divided into 20 States. Napoleon merged them all and formed 9 States.
He did not destroy their culture or their spirit, in a way he allowed them with all their liberties under a French Control.
The Love for their Freedom may tend to fight and stand together, for their unification.
Optimistic Leaders
Mazzini of Italy
From his early days, he was very much influenced in the Nationalistic Movement of Italy. He was born in Genova and was a Journalist. He studied Law and always visualised of a Free Italy.
He was radical in this thoughts, he was a members of the carbonary, he became popular through his writings and due to his revolutionary activities he was imprisoned by the Piedmont Government.
He was exiled and reached switzerland. He directed the movement from there. He created the society called the Young Italy. Its motto was God, the People and Italy.
It was also educating the masses and creating political awareness. It was mazzini who gave a clear shape and an Idea for Unification.
He mentioned that there should be no social division and One Italy would be the call for Italy.
Garibaldi (Romantic Revolutionary)
The most influential and charismatic personality of Italian Unification. He was called as the George Washington of Italy. At the Age of 24, he joined the Young Italy of Mazzini.
His Passion was to Unify Italy. he served in the Piedmont Navy. Mazzini was his Inspiration, due to his revolutionary activities. He was imprisoned and sentenced to death in 1834. He managed to escape to South America.
In 1848, he returned to italy, he always mentioned that for Italy to fight france and austria. He fought with the Pope for his attitude and threatened the pope for being Anti Christian and Anti Italian.
He reached, Milan and raised a huge army. he advised Cavour, to seek a foreign assistance to support Italy. Bismarck of germany promised to help.
With the Support of Germany, he Invaded and attacked all the southern Kingdoms. As a Military Leader he annexed the southern states. and unified them.
Cavour
He was the PM of Piedmont Sardinia. He worked under King Victor Emmanuel. He modernised Piedmont and introduced many reforms. His education reforms are still popular at Italy.
He was a Great Administrator and an Economist. He encouraged free trade policies in Italy, the Other 8 States saw piedmont as their Leader.
All the Local Difference between the Italians, were all crushed. He believed that Piedmont would start the Unification.
He sought help from Bismarck
Thus Mazzini’s Moral Enthusiasm, Garibaldi’s Sword and Cavour's Diplomacy unified Italy.
